Quantification of compaction effects on soil physical properties and crop growth
Introduction
Compaction of agricultural soils is an increasingly challenging worldwide problem for crop production and environment Van Ouwerkerk and Soane, 1994, Soane and Ouwerkerk, 1995. The vast majority of soil compaction and shearing in modern agriculture is due to vehicular traffic, which is an integral part of the soil management system. Increasing size of agricultural implements is a significant cause of induced soil compaction and deterioration of soil structure. In addition, many agronomic practices have to be performed frequently in a very short period of time and when soil is wet and conducive to compaction. This results in deeper stress penetration and subsoil compaction (Van den Akker and Stuiver, 1989).
Alterations in soil structure due to compaction influence many aspects of the soil such as strength, gas, water and heat, which in turn affect root and shoot growth and consequently crop production and environmental quality. Proper quantification of soil compaction effects is essential to develop management strategies that minimise the harmful compactive effect. In this paper we review the indices and measurement approaches which are relevant to the quantification of the behavioural soil physical properties and crop growth in response to compaction. Response of the indices to soil compaction in relation to soil type and experimental conditions is discussed.
Section snippets
Measuring stresses and strains
The methods to measure stress and strains (displacements) including the theory were thoroughly reviewed by Horn and Baumgartl (1999). The use of relatively large size of measuring devices causes considerable disturbance in soil structure and therefore recent developments tend to miniaturise sensors and measure stress and displacement simultaneously Kühner et al., 1994, Trautner and Arvidsson, 2000, Tarkiewicz and Lipiec, 2000, Pytka and Konstankiewicz, 2002. In the system described by
Indices of the state of soil compactness
Dry bulk density and total porosity are commonly used to characterise the state of soil compactness. However, these properties have a limited value for comparison of the state of compaction between soil types. To overcome this problem, actual bulk density is expressed as a percentage of some reference compaction state of given soil and called degree of compactness or relative compactness.
The degree of compactness proposed by Håkansson (1990) is defined as the ratio of the actual bulk density to
Soil physical characteristics
For accurate assessment of changes in soil fabric due to compaction, measurements of bulk density are not adequate Dexter, 1997, Horn and Rostek, 2000, McQueen and Shepherd, 2002 and should include other soil properties. Measurements of soil strength, aeration, water, thermal and structural characteristics are identified as the main behavioural properties influencing the quality of the soil after compaction. Changes in the characteristics with time provide information on the sustainability of
Concluding remarks
This paper reviews the indices and methods used to quantify the effects of soil compaction on strength, air, water, heat and root and shoot growth. A wide range of the indices and methods is used. The selection process (which of them should be used) depends on soil type, climate and severity of compaction. A few measuring systems for simultaneous measurement of two or more soil physical characteristics, which minimise soil disturbance and prevent complications due to soil heterogeneity, are
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