Legacies of agriculture and forest regrowth in the nitrogen of old-field soils
Introduction
Managing soil nitrogen (N) in the 35-million hectare pine and pine–hardwood forests of the southeastern USA is far from trivial in the 21st century. For example,
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Acidic, advanced weathering-stage soils (Ultisols) dominate the region. Many of these soils are characterized by generally low native fertility.
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Most soils in the region are highly disturbed by 150–300 years of agriculture. A legacy of agriculture is prominent in southeastern soils as cultivation, accelerated erosion, fertilizer inputs, and crop harvests have greatly altered soil fertility.
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Southeastern forests have nearly doubled in standing wood volume between the 1950s and 1990s, as the regional agricultural landscape has changed to one that is largely forested with a mixed set of uses. The nutrient requirements of this rapidly growing forest have made large demands on soil fertility, as have the forest harvests that have accompanied forest regrowth across the region. More wood is currently harvested for industrial products from southeastern forests than from any other wood-producing region on earth, about 250 million m3 per year (Powell et al., 1993; Jaakko Pöyry Group, 1994).
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The fraction of the southeastern forest that is most intensively managed for high fiber production relies fundamentally on management of soil fertility. A part of the new soil management includes forest N and P fertilization, a practice used in the 1990s on more than a half million hectares of high-productivity southeastern forest.
The forest N cycle, including inputs, returns, and losses, is relatively well quantified throughout the world in studies that span one to several annual cycles (Johnson and Lindberg, 1992). On the other hand, we have hardly any estimates of changes in the forest N cycle and in particular in soil N over time-scales of decades. Although computer simulations are important for understanding changes in N in ecosystems over these time-scales, they are no substitute for direct observations of soil and ecosystem change. Even small errors in annual estimates of N circulation carried over time-scales of decades magnify our uncertainties of whether soil N inputs are outpaced by removals and whether ecosystems are actually gaining or losing N. Ecosystem experiments which quantify soil change over decades of management are therefore invaluable to our perspectives of ecosystem sustainability (Jenkinson, 1991; Leigh and Johnston, 1994; Mitchell et al., 1996).
A simplified, generic N budget illustrates how managed southeastern pine forests may gain or lose N over time-scales of decades (Table 1). Nitrogen removals in timber harvest plus hydrologic leaching range from <120 to 400 kg ha−1 in pine forest stands harvested on a 25-year rotation (Table 1). Compensating these removals are inputs of N from atmospheric deposition plus N2 fixation that range from 5 to 10 kg ha−1 per year (Binkley et al., 1989a; Johnson and Lindberg, 1992; Fox and Mikler, 1995; Richter and Markewitz, 1995), inputs that over a 25-year forest-rotation may amount to 150–300 kg ha−1. The N balance hypothetically ranges from a surplus of 180 kg ha−1 to a deficit of 250 kg ha−1, a range that depends substantially on ecosystem productivity, harvest utilization, and measurement errors. Table 1 helps to demonstrate why long-term soil–ecosystem experiments are important to quantifying ecosystem-N dynamics over time-scales of decades (Stone, 1975; Powers and Van Cleve, 1991; Richter and Markewitz, 2000).
In this paper, we estimate changes in soil N in a four-decade soil–ecosystem experiment (at the Calhoun Experimental Forest in South Carolina), and we place these relatively recent changes in soil N in the context of soil N as it was affected by more than a century of prior agricultural use (1800–1950).
In the upland Piedmont of southeastern USA, changes in soil N are particularly interesting because three distinctly different ecosystems (Fig. 1) correspond to major changes in the regional N cycle over time-scales of millennia, centuries, and decades (Table 2):
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A primary forest ecosystem, mainly of oak and hickory species, that covered the upland Piedmont for thousands of years prior to 1700.
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An agro-ecosystem, that dominated the southern Piedmont region from about 1800 to the early 20th century, a system managed for cotton, tobacco, corn, wheat, and other agricultural products.
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A secondary, old-field forest ecosystem, that in the late 20th century grows on >35 million hectares, much of which was established in pine between 1920 and 1960.
Of the paper’s five specific objectives, two evaluate changes in soil N associated with forest clearing and agricultural use of these soils for more than a century, two investigate changes in soil N in aggrading pine stands that grow on former agricultural fields abandoned since the 1950s, and one integrates these changes in soil N over time-scales of centuries and decades. Explicitly stated, the objectives are to estimate:
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soil N under unfertilized and uncultivated deciduous hardwood forests, selected to represent conditions close to those of the primary forest before 1700;
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changes in soil N that are associated with long-term cotton and other agricultural uses from about 1800 to present;
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changes in mineral-soil N in old-fields over four decades of pine-forest development;
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N accretion in the four-decade-old pine ecosystem (biomass plus soil); and
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a N budget of upland Piedmont soils that spans the period from pre-1800 to the present.
Section snippets
Methods
To accomplish the paper’s objectives, we used a soil-comparative study and a long-term field experiment with all plots on or near the Calhoun Experimental Forest, SC, USA (Richter and Markewitz, 2000). The fifth objective combines data from both the comparative and experimental studies with information from the history of cotton cultivation in the Piedmont and across the southeastern USA (Vance, 1929; Gray, 1933; Sheridan, 1979; Mitchell et al., 1996).
Legacies of primary forest and agricultural use in modern Calhoun soils
The hardwood forest soils (Table 3), which we assume have never been cultivated or fertilized, are our closest approximations to pre-agricultural soil conditions in these Piedmont ecosystems. Total N in the upper 30-cm soil of hardwood forests (Table 4) averaged 384 μg g−1 and 1551 kg ha−1 (CV=36.4%). Soils that support hayfields or row cropped corn have higher contents of soil N (Table 4), 2337 (CV=19.5%) and 1765 kg ha−1, respectively, no doubt due to long-term N fertilization. Old-field pine
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