Effects of deficit irrigation on yield, water productivity, and economic returns of wheat

doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2007.05.010

Agricultural Water Management

Volume 92, Issue 3, 16 September 2007, Pages 151-161

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2007.05.010 Get rights and content

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted for 3 consecutive years to study the effects of water deficit on yield, water productivity and net return of wheat. Yield attributes were affected by deficit irrigation treatments although they are not statistically different in all cases. The grain and straw yields were significantly affected by treatments. The highest grain yield was obtained with the no-deficit treatment. Differences in grain and straw yield among the partial- (single- or two-stage deficit) and no-deficit treatments are small and statistically insignificant in most cases. The highest water productivity and productivity of irrigation water were obtained in the alternate deficit treatment (T₇), where deficits were imposed at maximum tillering (jointing to shooting) and flowering to soft dough stages of growth period, followed by single irrigation at crown root initiation stage. Under both land- and water-limiting conditions, the alternate deficit strategy (T₇) showed maximum net financial return. The results will be helpful in policy planning regarding irrigation management for maximizing net financial returns from limited land and water resources.

Introduction

Bangladesh, a densely populated country (910 persons/km²), is facing an acute shortage of fresh water. Although the country receives substantial rainfall, this is seasonal and concentrated during a few months (May to September). Other months are dry. The source of irrigation water for dry-season cropping is groundwater. Vertical (increased cropping intensities) and horizontal expansion (cultivation of crops on new lands) of irrigated agriculture to feed the increasing population have contributed to excessive groundwater withdrawal and affect the availability of good quality irrigation water. Strategic options for achieving sustainable agriculture include alternate cropping patterns (cultivating low water-demand crop), water conserving irrigation scheduling, and developing of stress/drought tolerant crop varieties (Qadir et al., 2003).

Deficit irrigation provides a means of reducing water consumption while minimizing adverse effects on yield (English and Nakamura, 1989, English and Raja, 1996, Mugabe and Nyakatawa, 2000, Bazza, 1999, Ghinassi and Trucchi, 2001, Kirda, 2002, Mao et al., 2003, Panda et al., 2003, Zhang et al., 2004). The basic information needed to adopt this technique is the response of water deficit for various stages of the crop. It is also important to determine the relative monetary gains or economic advantage under well-irrigated and deficit conditions.

Many investigators have concluded that deficit irrigation can increase net farm income (English, 1990, Martin et al., 1989, Kumar and Khepar, 1980, Fardad and Golkar, 2002, Zhang et al., 2002). The potential returns of deficit irrigation derive from three factors: increased irrigation efficiency, reduced cost of irrigation, and the opportunity cost of water (English et al., 1990). Reduced yield under deficit irrigation (especially in water-limiting situations) may be compensated by increased production from the additional irrigated area with the water saved by deficit irrigation.

Hassan et al. (2000) investigated the impact of deficit irrigation strategies on wheat yield and water savings. They reported from a 1-year study that a two-stage deficit at yield formation and ripening stage produced the highest yield, and saved 34% of irrigation water, compared to normal watering (4 frequency). However, they did not investigate the effects of alternate deficit on yield and water productivity. The authors also did not evaluate net returns under various deficit conditions.

At the Ganges-Kobotak project area of Bangladesh, Sarkar et al. (1987) obtained the highest grain yield with four irrigations applied at different times whereas, applying one irrigation after 21 days of sowing generated reasonable yield and the highest water use efficiency. Mugabe and Nyakatawa (2000) observed that applying 75% and 50% of crop water requirements resulted in yield decreases of 12% and 20% in 2 years, respectively. Zhang et al. (2004) found that severe soil water deficit (SWD) decreased grain yield of winter wheat, while slight SWD in the growth stage from spring green up to grain-filling did not reduce grain yield or water use efficiency. This result indicates that ET can be reduced somewhat without significantly decreasing grain yield. Liang et al. (2002) demonstrated that a drying-rewatering alteration has a significant compensatory effect that can reduce transpiration and keep wheat growing.

Many investigations have been carried out worldwide regarding the effects of water deficit or stress on yield and yield–water relations of wheat. However, most of the earlier studies have examined the effects of only one or two continuous periods of water deficit imposed during crop growth. Few studies have examined alternate timings of water deficit and analyzed the economic return, to determine the most economic irrigation program alternatives. We examined the effects of single-stage and alternate-stage water deficits on yield, irrigation water productivity, and the net financial return of wheat production in northwestern Bangladesh.

Section snippets

Experimental site, soil and climate

The field experiment was conducted at the experimental farm of the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Ishurdi, Bangladesh (co-ordinates are: latitude 24°06′N, longitude 89°01′E). The altitude is 34 m above mean sea level.

The soil is a calcareous brown floodplain silt loam developed from Ganges River alluvium and classified as calcareous fluvisol according to FAO/UNESCO classification (FAO, 1971). The texture is silty loam. The soil is of alkaline pH (8.5), medium in organic

Weather conditions during the crop growing period

The wheat-growing period, November to March, was characterized by a dry winter. The daily maximum and minimum temperatures within the crop season varied between 22 and 35 °C, and 9 and 23 °C, respectively. The average daily bright sunshine periods were 5.1, 5.6 and 6.5 h for 2002–2003, 2003–2004 and 2004–2005, respectively. The average wind velocity ranged between 6 and 6.6 km/day.

Rainfall amounts during the wheat season were 75, 11 and 25 mm during 2002–2003, 2003–2004 and 2004–2005, respectively.

Discussion

The economic return to irrigation often involves more than the value of crop yield. The reduction in irrigation frequency from the well-irrigated strategy permits the allocation of the given supply of irrigation water to a proportional larger area. Although yield per hectare is reduced under such deficit strategy compared to full irrigation, the reduction in irrigation cost and the opportunity cost of water more than compensates for the lower yield.

The results of this study provide an

Conclusions

Differences in grain and straw yield among the partial and no-deficit treatments are small, and statistically insignificant in most cases. When compared within single-deficit treatments, the grain yield reduction followed the order to water deficit at phases: CRI > maximum tillering > booting–heading > flowering–soft dough. Within two deficit strategies, the treatment having alternate irrigation at CRI and booting–heading phase performed better. The highest net return under both land- and

References (40)

M. English et al.
Perspectives on deficit irrigation
Agric. Water Manage.
(1996)
J.R. Kiniry et al.
Radiation use efficiency in biomass accumulation prior to grain filling in five grain crop species
Field Crop Res.
(1989)
X. Mao et al.
Effects of deficit irrigation on yield and water use of greenhouse grown cucumber in the North China Plain
Agric. Water Manage.
(2003)
F.T. Mugabe et al.
Effect of deficit irrigation on wheat and opportunities of growing wheat on residual soil moisture in southeast Zimbabwe
Agric. Water Manage.
(2000)
R.K. Panda et al.
Effective management of irrigation water for wheat under stressed conditions
Agric. Water Manage.
(2003)
M. Qadir et al.
Agricultural water management in water-starved countries: challenges and opportunities
Agric. Water Manage.
(2003)
J. Yang et al.
Remobilization of carbon reserves in response to water deficit during grain filling of rice
Field Crop Res.
(2001)
J. Zhang et al.
An improved water use efficiency for winter wheat grown under reduced irrigation
Field Crop Res.
(1998)
Y. Zhang et al.
Effect of soil water deficit on evapotranspiration, crop yield, and water use efficiency in the North China Plain
Agric. Water Manage.
(2004)
M.H. Ali et al.
Irrigation schedules for wheat using lysimeter
Bangladesh J. Agric. Eng.
(1997)

M. Bazza

Improving irrigation management practices with water-deficit irrigation

O.P. Bishnoi et al.

Micro-climate of wheat (Triricum aestivum) crop in different row orientations

Ind. J. Agric. Sci.

(1991)

H.V. Eck

Winter wheat response to nitrogen and irrigation

Agron. J.

(1988)

M.J. English

Deficit irrigation. I. Analytical framework

J. Am. Soc. Civil Eng.

(1990)

M. English et al.

Effects of deficit irrigation and irrigation frequency on wheat yields

J. Irrig. Drain. Eng.

(1989)

M.J. English et al.

Deficit irrigation

FAO, 1971. Soil survey project of Bangladesh. Soil Resources Technical Report 3 of FAO, Rome, p....

H. Fardad et al.

An economic evaluation of deficit irrigation on wheat yield in Karaj

Iran. J. Agric. Sci.

(2002)

W. Feekes

De Tarwe en haar milien

G. Ghinassi et al.

Deficit irrigation trials on maize in a Mediterranean semi-arid environment

Int. Water Irrig.

(2001)

Cited by (289)

Optimizing irrigation management sustained grain yield, crop water productivity, and mitigated greenhouse gas emissions from the winter wheat field in North China Plain
2023, Agricultural Water Management
Climate change caused by increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to frequent extreme weather events, which seriously threaten sustainable agricultural production. Therefore, it is essential to optimize proper irrigation management to improve the grain yield, crop water productivity (WP_c), economic crop water productivity (EWP_c), and lower global warming potential (GWP) and GWP Intensity (GWPI). The effect of irrigation scheduling and irrigation methods on GHG emissions remains largely unknown, even though this knowledge is essential to optimize the irrigation management. To address this knowledge gap, a field experiment was carried out in the North China Plain (NCP) for three winter wheat seasons to measure the influence of different irrigation methods and irrigation scheduling on WP_c, EWP_c, GWP, and GWPI. Irrigation scheduling including 50%, 60%, and 70% of the field capacity (FC) were kept in the main plots and irrigation methods, including sprinkler, drip, and flood irrigation methods in the sub-plots. The results revealed that relative to sprinkler irrigation at 60% FC, drip irrigation at 60% FC significantly (p < 0.05) improved the yield 4.89–7.52%, WP_c 1.0–5.4%, EWP_c 1.1–5.49%, lower GWP 7.47–9.34%, and GWPI 10.92–15.23%. Compared with flood irrigation at 60% FC, drip irrigation at 60% FC increased grain yield 5.34–6.81%, WP_c 5.65–15.1%, EWP_c 5.73–15.12%, lower GWP 10.36–15.16%, and GWPI 16.22–19.40%. Technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS) presented that compared with sprinkler and flood irrigation at 60% FC irrigation scheduling, drip irrigation at 60% FC irrigation scheduling provides the best results for improved the yield, WP_c, and EWP_c, and optimal balance in GWP and GWPI. Therefore, the irrigation scheduling of 60% FC combined with drip irrigation is suggested for sustained wheat yield, improved WP_c and EWP_c, and mitigated GWP in the NCP.
Effect of deficit irrigation under furrow irrigation techniques on garlic (Allium sativum L.) productivity at the central highland of Ethiopia
2023, Water-Energy Nexus
Garlic is one of the widely grown vegetables in irrigation but poor irrigation management causes depressed agronomic practices and results in low productivity. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation on soil moisture, yield, and water use efficiency (WUE) of garlic (Allium sativum L.) local cultivars under furrow irrigation techniques. It was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications with four irrigation levels (100, 85, 70, and 55% ETc) and three furrow techniques namely: Alternative (AFI), Fixed (FFI) and Conventional (CFI). An irrigation regime was determined based on both ETc and soil moisture methods. All collected data were subjected to ANOVA by SAS statistical software. The result showed that yield and WUE were highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected by deficit levels and furrow techniques. The maximum yield of 8.9 t/ha was obtained with the application of 100% ETc under CFI, while the maximum CWUE of 4.1 kg/m³ with the application of 55% ETc under AFI. The application of 85% ETc under AFI resulted in optimum yield and CWUE. Correlation analysis revealed that strong positive association between garlic yield and its yield components. In areas where there is abundant water, garlic could be irrigated with a seasonal irrigation depth of 592 mm (100% ETc) under CFI techniques. The application of 85% ETc under AFI techniques saves irrigation water with insignificant yield reduction and this saved water could possibly produce an extra yield of 7.1 t/ha, resulting in a more economical return with a marginal rate of return (MRR) of 1463%. Therefore, it is the best choice under the conditions of the study area and other similar areas.
Exploring deficit irrigation as a water conservation strategy: Insights from field experiments and model simulation
2023, Agricultural Water Management
Deficit irrigation has emerged as a viable approach to increase agricultural water productivity. The objectives of this study were to 1) develop water conservation strategies by investigating responses of green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata) to four irrigation treatments and 2) evaluate the performance of the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) model in simulating growth and yield responses of green bean and sweet corn under four irrigation treatments. A field experiment was conducted using 32 experimental plots, established under a linear move sprinkler irrigation system equipped with variable rate irrigation (VRI) technology, at the Tropical Research and Education Center (TREC), Homestead for two cropping seasons between November and March in 2020–2021 and 2021–2022. The experiment involved four irrigation treatments: full irrigation (FI) (T4), and three levels of deficit irrigation, 75% FI (T3), 50% FI (T2), and 25% FI (T1) with four replications arranged in a completely randomized block design (RCBD) for each crop. The average soil moisture content of the full irrigation treatments was maintained above the management allowable depletion (MAD). Field data collection included various parameters of the crops including plant phenology, plant height, canopy width, fresh and dry biomass, and yield. Results confirmed that all three deficit irrigation treatments did not significantly affect the yield and yield components of the two crops during both seasons compared to the T4. This finding revealed that the highest crop water productivity was achieved from T1, 38.3 and 41.4 kg m⁻³ for green bean and 54 and 53 kg m⁻³ for sweet corn during the 2020–2021 and 2021–2022 seasons and up to 75% irrigation water saving could be achieved without affecting plant growth and yield. The DSSAT model performed well in simulating yield and yield components for the two crops in response to the four irrigation treatments. Model evaluation results showed that the minimum mean absolute error (MAE) for green bean fresh pod yield simulation was 2.1 Mg ha⁻¹ with an index of agreement (d-Stat) of 0.6, while for biomass, it was 0.24 Mg ha⁻¹ with a d-Stat of 1. Similarly, for sweet corn, the model simulated fresh cob yield with a minimum MAE of 6.51 Mg ha⁻¹ and d-Stat of 0.9 and biomass with MAE of 1.63 Mg ha⁻¹ and d-Stat of 0.9. Overall, implementing deficit irrigation in green bean and sweet corn fields could result in considerable water savings while achieving acceptable crop yield. The DSSAT model could be also a useful tool to simulate green bean and sweet corn responses to different irrigation scenarios and aid water management decisions under South Florida conditions.
Growth, yield, water productivity and economics of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) in response to gravity drip irrigation under mulch and without-mulch conditions
2023, Scientia Horticulturae
Optimization of water by the drip irrigation system and soil water conservation through appropriate mulching is a prerequisite for sustainable crop production in water resource-scarce areas. A three seasons of field experiment was conducted to investigate the crop and water productivity of okra in relation to gravity drip irrigation use of mulch in combination with mulch under the environmental condition of the Indo-Gangetic plains of eastern India. Four levels of irrigation viz., surface irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE (I₁), drip irrigation at 0.6 (I₂), 0.8 (I₃) and 1.0 (I₄) of crop evapotranspiration ( $E T_{c}$ ) and three mulches viz., no-mulch (M₀), black polythene mulch (M₁) and paddy straw mulch (M₂) laid out in a split-plot design with three replications were investigated. Results showed that I₃M₁ produced the higher average growth, yield attributes, fruit yield (12.24 t ha⁻¹), CWP, IWP, ECWP and EIWP and maximum economic returns, being almost identical to I₄M₁. Under severe water scarcity, I₂M₁ was an alternative. The highest BCR was accomplished in I₄M₀ followed by I₃M₀. Drip irrigation scheduling saved about 14–56% of water over surface irrigation, which could accommodate 11.1–48.6% of additional land area under the drip irrigation network. The optimal irrigation and $E T_{a}$ requirements were estimated at 86–136 mm and 142–168 mm, respectively for obtaining maximum yield (12.1–12.3 t ha⁻¹). The water-yield production function model gives many options for allocating limited water resources under drip irrigation for a desirable yield. The crop yield response factor confirmed that moderate deficit irrigation management with a drip system across the growing period can be a feasible option for okra cultivators in the water-scarce regions of Indo-Gangetic plains or similar agro-climatic conditions.
Supplemental irrigation at the jointing stage of late sown winter wheat for increased production and water use efficiency
2023, Field Crops Research
The sowing of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the winter wheat-summer maize double cropping system is considerably delayed due to late harvest of the maize. This delayed sowing leads to reduction in spike numbers and ultimately the yield. Supplemental irrigation at the jointing stage (SIJ) can effectively regulate the population of winter wheat, but few studies have reported the impacts of SIJ on water utilization, wheat stem number fluctuations, and yield formation of late sown wheat.
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of sowing scheme accompanied with SIJ on wheat yield and water use efficiency (WUE).
A two-year field experiment with two treatment factors (sowing date and irrigation schemes) in a split-plot design was laid out during 2018–2020 in the wheat growing seasons. The main plots were divided into two levels: normal sown date (A1) and late sown date (A2). The split plots included two irrigation schemes: no SIJ (W0) and SIJ (W1).
The soil water consumption at 20–120 cm soil depth during sowing to jointing stage in late sown wheat (A2) was significantly lower than the normal sown wheat (A1) but it increased considerably at 100–200 cm soil depth from jointing to maturity in A2. SIJ (W1) in late sown wheat produced better yield and WUE than no SIJ (W0). Under W1 conditions, A2 significantly promoted water consumption from jointing to maturity compared with A1, but, because water consumption from sowing to jointing was very low, seasonal water consumption remained significantly low. Additionally, A2 showed accelerated dry matter accumulation after jointing, increased grain numbers per spike and per unit area, improved net photosynthetic rate (Pn) of flag leaf and post-anthesis assimilate production.
SIJ accelerated Pn and dry matter accumulation after jointing in late sown wheat, increased grain numbers per unit area, grain yield, and WUE without increasing seasonal water consumption. The seasonal water consumption in the normal sown period were higher. Although the number of spikes in normal sown wheat with higher water consumption, total stem number and dry matter accumulation before jointing was higher, after SIJ, the yield and WUE were lower than those of late sown wheat owing to the reduction in grain numbers per spike.
This study explains how the sowing scheme and SIJ affect wheat yield and WUE, and demonstrates that SIJ was particularly crucial for late sown wheat to achieve the synergistic improvement of grain yield and WUE.
Optimizing plant type structure to adjust the temporal and spatial distribution of water consumption and promote the growth and yield formation of cotton
2023, European Journal of Agronomy
Global warming leads to further shortage of agricultural water resources. Understanding the water consuming characteristics of different cotton cultivars is crucial for efficient utilization of water resources and yield increasing. However, there is little evidence about the effects of cotton cultivars with different plant-type structures on yield formation and temporal and spatial distribution of water consumption. A two-year experiment was conducted at the Cotton Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 2020 and 2021 to evaluate the water consumption of six cotton cultivars with different plant-type structures cotton using spatial grid method and water balance method combined with 5TE sensor. The leaf area index (LAI), biomass, yield and spatial distribution of bolls were also measured and analyzed. The results showed that the loose-type cultivars consumed more soil water than the compact-type cultivars, which was due to the higher water consumption in the 40–120 cm soil layer. The cumulative water consumption and water consumption of each soil layer (0–40 cm 40–80 cm and 80–120 cm) of different cotton cultivars had significant quadratic function relationship with LAI, and had significant linear positive correlation with biomass accumulation (aboveground biomass and underground biomass), with R² greater than 0.8. When consuming the same amount of water, loose-type cultivars produced more biomass and larger green leaf area than compact-type cultivars. However, the yield-increasing and water-saving effects of the two plant-type structure cotton cultivars were similar, while SCRC 28 and Ji 228 have higher yield and water use efficiency (WUE), which were suitable to be popularized and planted in the cotton area of the Yellow River basin. Cotton yield was significantly negatively correlated with boll setting rate in upper canopy and water consumption in 0–40 cm soil layer, and the R respectively were − 0.82 and − 0.69; it was positively correlated with boll setting rate in lower canopy and water consumption in 80–120 cm soil layer, and the R respectively were 0.75 and 0.64. Therefore, increasing the WUE of 0–40 cm soil layer and water consumption in 80–120 cm soil layer was beneficial to high yield of cotton. By optimizing the structure of different plant types, the temporal and spatial distribution of water consumption of cotton can be adjusted, and the yield of cotton can be effectively improved. The results can provide a basis for cotton cultivar selection and precision irrigation management.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Effects of deficit irrigation on yield, water productivity, and economic returns of wheat

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Experimental site, soil and climate

Weather conditions during the crop growing period

Discussion

Conclusions

Agric. Water Manage.

Field Crop Res.

Agric. Water Manage.

Agric. Water Manage.

Agric. Water Manage.

Agric. Water Manage.

Field Crop Res.

Field Crop Res.

Agric. Water Manage.

Irrigation schedules for wheat using lysimeter

Bangladesh J. Agric. Eng.

Improving irrigation management practices with water-deficit irrigation

Micro-climate of wheat (Triricum aestivum) crop in different row orientations

Ind. J. Agric. Sci.

Winter wheat response to nitrogen and irrigation

Agron. J.

Deficit irrigation. I. Analytical framework

J. Am. Soc. Civil Eng.

Effects of deficit irrigation and irrigation frequency on wheat yields

J. Irrig. Drain. Eng.

Deficit irrigation

An economic evaluation of deficit irrigation on wheat yield in Karaj

Iran. J. Agric. Sci.

De Tarwe en haar milien

Deficit irrigation trials on maize in a Mediterranean semi-arid environment

Int. Water Irrig.