Using vegetation indices from satellite remote sensing to assess corn and soybean response to controlled tile drainage
Research highlights
This study demonstrated that utilizing high spatial resolution imagery from multi-spectral remote sensing platforms to derive vegetation indices can be useful for determining the impact of controlled tile drainage on crop growth at large spatial scales. Such information can be especially valuable for crop growth modeling and yield forecasting. This study found: (i) at growth stages ≥V10 for corn and ≥R4 for soybean, a majority of the statistical comparisons conducted indicated that controlled tile drainage increases significantly NDVI and GNDVI for corn and soybean over the experimental study area for manured and non-manured fields, (ii) controlled tile drainage increases modestly the uniformity in vegetation indices of corn and soybean, relative to conventional tile drainage, (iii) there was no significant difference among observed controlled tile drainage and conventional tile drainage crop grain yields at the p = 0.05 level, yet 87% of the observed grain yield comparisons indicated field mean grain yields for controlled drainage were greater than or equal to those for conventional tile drainage (observed corn and soybean yields were 3% and 4% greater under controlled tile drainage practices), and (iv) using site-based grain yield vs. vegetation index regression models for specific crop growth stages to predict crop yield from vegetation index pixel information (NDVI and GNDVI) over a broader spatial extent in the experimental area, it was shown that predicted non-manured corn and soybean grain yields under controlled tile drainage were (7–11%) and (3–4%) higher relative to conventional tile drainage, respectively. These percentages for manured corn and soybean were (0.1–3%) and (−5% to −2%), respectively. Hence, although CTD effects on observed grain yield were insignificant from a statistical standpoint, the results here are promising in that crops were also not adversely impacted by CTD. This, coupled with the water quality benefits of CTD, suggests broadly that CTD is a practice that has multiple benefits to the producer and the environment.
Introduction
Controlled tile drainage (CTD) is a management practice that regulates the amount of tile drainage waters that can leave a field (Gilliam et al., 1979). This practice can increase water table elevations and soil water contents in the field, thus allowing for crops to more readily access water and nutrients during critical growth stages. As a result, controlled tile drainage has been shown to increase crop yields (Tan et al., 1999, Mejia et al., 2000, Ng et al., 2002, Ma et al., 2007). Furthermore, CTD can improve surface water quality of adjacent water resources by virtue of reducing the net export of nutrients, and other agriculturally derived contaminants, via tile drainage systems (Drury et al., 1996, Wesström and Messing, 2007). In many temperate regions, tile drains are allowed to freely drain for a period of time in spring in order to facilitate normal and timely spring field operations, and often at or just after planting, tile drainage is restricted by a water flow control structure like those shown in Fig. 1. The water flow control structures that restrict discharge from a tile network can reduce the potential risk of anoxia stress to crops by permitting tiles to drain once a critically high water table is achieved in the system. Overall, CTD is a flexible management system that can be set to accommodate specific crops, topographic, and soil characteristics (ASABE, 1990, Madramootoo et al., 1993, Evans et al., 1995, Drury et al., 1996, Paasonen-Kivekas et al., 1996).
Corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine max L.) have a relatively high demand for nutrients and water at the growth stages termed V10 and R4–R5 (Table 1, Table 2), respectively (Bruyn et al., 1995, McWilliams et al., 1999, Morrison et al., 2006). By V12 stage, corn becomes increasingly susceptible to yield reduction by moisture and nutrient deficiencies (McWilliams et al., 1999, OMAFRA, 2009a); whereas this critical time for soybean is achieved at approximately R4–R6 stage of development (Bruyn et al., 1995, Morrison et al., 2006, OMAFRA, 2009b). Depending on weather conditions, CTD could reduce nutrient and water stress during these critical growth periods.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (Tucker, 1979) and Green Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (GNDVI) (Gitelson et al., 1996) are well established and easily acquired spectral reflectance indicators of crop environmental stress (Tucker, 1979, Tucker and Sellers, 1986, Shanahan et al., 2001, Jackson et al., 2004, Vina et al., 2004); thus, these indices could potentially be used as indicators of the responsiveness of crops to augmented nutrient and water availability imposed by CTD practices. Gitelson et al. (1996) introduced the GNDVI to overcome issues of saturation observed for NDVI for some vegetation types at later growth stages. This index essentially substitutes the green band for the red band in the NDVI estimator and therefore, GNDVI has been considered more useful for assessing leaf chlorophyll variability when leaf area index is moderately high (Gitelson et al., 1996). Gianelle et al. (2009) confirmed that GNDVI was less affected by saturation and thus a good indicator of a number of predictors of vegetation productivity. A number of optical satellite sensors acquire data in the spectral wavelengths needed to produce these vegetation indices at the pixel level. Several of these satellites, including the Landsat and SPOT series, have spatial resolutions suitable for generating field-level information with swaths covering large spatial extents (e.g., Doraiswamy et al., 2004). Since the relative impact of CTD on crop performance will vary as a result of soil, weather, and topographic disposition, remote sensing derived indices such as NDVI and GNDVI could serve as a means to gauge the efficacy of CTD on crop growth and yield (e.g., Shanahan et al., 2001, Baez-Gonzalez et al., 2005, Elwadie et al., 2005) at the landscape scale where detailed crop information (e.g., yield monitoring) may be limited. If CTD is employed broadly in a region or en masse in a particular area, then vegetation indices derived from remote sensing could be used to help determine where the practice is, and is not, most effective in terms of yield augmentation (e.g., topographic, weather, and soil limiting factors). Moreover, such information may be crucial for estimating or informing at policy-relevant scales of investigation, like watersheds and counties; cost-benefits (e.g., Moran, 1994) of emerging management practices like controlled tile drainage, the implication of the drainage management practice in terms of developing/augmenting cost-share programs for specific regions (e.g., http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/PROGRAMS/EQIP; http://www.nation.on.ca/clean-water.htm), nutrient and water balances (e.g., Bella et al., 2000), and yield forecasting (e.g., Rasmussen, 1997).
We hypothesize that NDVI and GNDVI can provide a spatial indicator of crop responsiveness to increased water and nutrients resulting from CTD intervention. The main objectives of this paper are to: (i) compare NDVI and GNDVI at specific corn and soybean crop growth stages for fields in a watershed setting under CTD and uncontrolled tile drainage (UCTD) practices for 3 years of observation, and (ii) contrast observed grain yields for these tile drain management practices with those predicted over the watershed using vegetation indices vs. grain yield linear regression models.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
The study site is situated within ∼950 ha of an experimental watershed system located in eastern Ontario, Canada (45.26 N, 75.18 W). Dominant soils at the site are Bainsville silt loams (Wicklund and Richards, 1962). Lower hydraulic conductivity clayey soils underlay these soils at approximately 1.0–1.5 m depth. Local slope of the study area is generally <1%. The land occupied by soybean and corn under conventional and controlled tile drainage is given in Table 3 for years 2005–2007. Tile drain
General information
Satellite imagery was selected for the V1–R6 growth stages for corn and <V3-R6 growth stages for soybean (Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5 and Table 4, Table 5). The more advanced vegetative and the reproductive growth stages are associated with rooting systems that would be capable of accessing elevated water tables and heightened soil water contents at depth in soil resulting from CTD, relative to the very early crop growth stages where root activity is more shallow and roots less developed.
Summary and conclusions
This study demonstrated that utilizing high spatial resolution imagery from multi-spectral remote sensing platforms to derive vegetation indices can be useful for determining the impact of controlled tile drainage on crop growth at large spatial scales. Such information can be especially valuable for crop growth modeling and yield forecasting. This study found: (i) at growth stages ≥V10 for corn and ≥R4 for soybean, a majority of the statistical comparisons conducted indicated that controlled
Acknowledgements
Support for this project was provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada's (AAFC) Watershed Evaluation of Beneficial Management Practice (WEBs) program and an NSERC of Canada USRA scholarship to H. Cicek. We would like to thank Dr. Malcolm Morrison (AAFC-Ottawa) and Dr. Gilles Lamothe (Univ. Ottawa) for advice on this document.
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