Permanent raised bed planting of the pigeonpea–wheat system on a Typic Ustochrept: Effects on soil fertility, yield, and water and nutrient use efficiencies

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Abstract

In the Indo-Gangetic Plain region, a major deterrent to large scale adoption of the otherwise advantageous pigeonpea–wheat cropping system is the poor crop stand of pigeonpea due to temporary water logging during the rainy (monsoon) season, leading to its low productivity and a smaller residual effect on the succeeding wheat crop. The permanent raised bed (PRB) system of planting, as widely used particularly for wheat in different countries, has seldom been studied in the pigeonpea–wheat system. We, therefore, conducted a field experiment at Modipuram (29°4′N, 77°46′E, 237 m asl), India, for 3 consecutive years (2001–02 to 2003–04) to evaluate the PRB vis-à-vis the conventional flat bed (FB) system of planting at varying fertilizer NP rates in the pigeonpea–wheat system, in terms of changes in soil organic carbon, nutrient and water use efficiencies, annual productivity and economic returns. Pigeonpea grown on PRB had lower plant mortality (4–7%) and higher yield (1.6–2.1 t ha−1) as compared to FB with 26–36% mortality and yield of 1.3–1.8 t ha−1. Pigeonpea on PRB had greater N and P recycling (11–23% N and 8–14% P) through its residue comprising root, stubble and leaf litter. Although wheat yield following pigeonpea under PRB was lower (p < 0.05) compared with that under FB, the system productivity in terms of wheat equivalent yield was 8.44% higher under PRB. The economic optimum doses of fertilizer N and P for wheat in the pigeonpea–wheat system were smaller (128 kg N and 28 kg P ha−1) under PRB as compared to FB (152 kg N and 30 kg P ha−1) owing to increased N and P supply, greater P use efficiency and a better crop growth environment under PRB planting. The N use efficiency indices were significantly greater (p < 0.05) in wheat under FB compared to those under PRB. By contrast, P use efficiency was greater under PRB, particularly in treatments that received both N and P fertilizers. Compared with FB, the root mass density (20–46%) of wheat was also greater under PRB in surface and sub-surface soil layers. PRB favored saving of irrigation water by 9.5–13.4 ha cm and improved the irrigation application efficiency by 9.5–13.4% and the irrigation use efficiency by 19–28 kg ha cm−1 over FB. The post-wheat harvest nitrate N (NO3-N) at 20–40 cm soil depth in plots fertilized with 120 or 180 kg N ha−1 was greater under FB planting (10.25–13.81 mg kg−1) compared to PRB (7.33–8.42 mg kg−1), suggesting that PRB planting might reduce NO3-N leaching to deeper soil layers. Similarly, in the treatments that received both N and P, NO3-N in soil below 20 cm depth was lower compared to those receiving N or P alone. After three crop cycles, soil OC and the Olsen-P content in the 0–20 cm depth were increased compared to the initial content under both planting techniques but the magnitude of increase was greater under PRB. Compared with FB, the annual net returns of the pigeonpea–wheat system were greater by US$ 210 ha−1 under PRB, and the crop also required less specific energy (1.99 MJ kg−1) compared with the FB planting (3.18 MJ kg−1).

Introduction

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp) is an important grain legume crop of the semi-arid tropics, occupying about 3.55 million ha area with an annual grain production of 2.40 million t in India alone (GOI, 2007). India is the major pigeonpea producing country accounting for 91% of the global pigeonpea production. The Indo-Gangetic Plain region (IGP), wherein cereal-based cropping systems predominate, contributes 28% of the total pigeonpea production of India (Ali et al., 2000). In the quest for diversification of the most widespread rice–wheat cropping system in the region, pigeonpea has been considered as one of the potential crops to substitute rice either permanently or intermittently (Chauhan et al., 2004, Singh et al., 2005, Singh and Dwivedi, 2006). Previously, inclusion of conventional long-duration cultivars of pigeonpea in the cropping systems was not possible as these transgressed two crop seasons. The advent of short duration (150–160 days), high yielding and determinate genotypes led to the introduction of pigeonpea in otherwise non-traditional areas, i.e., irrigated ecosystems of IGP, giving rise to the pigeonpea–wheat cropping system (Ali, 1996). The major constraints, which still restrict the productivity as well as expansion of area under this new cropping system are high mortality of pigeonpea crop due to intermittent water stagnation during the rainy season (monsoon) leading to poor crop stand (Chauhan, 1987) and also infestation of phytophthora blight (Phytophthora spp. cagani) (Johansen et al., 2000).

A change from growing crops on the traditional flat bed to the raised bed offers more effective control of irrigation water and drainage, reduced weed infestation and lodging, improved nutrient use efficiency, reduced tillage, water saving, and higher yields with decreased operational cost (Aquino, 1998, Connor et al., 2003, Fahong et al., 2004, Hobbs and Gupta, 2003b, Sayre and Moreno Ramos, 1997). Apart from this, the raised bed planting helps to reduce soil compaction by confining traffic to the furrows (Limon-Ortega et al., 2006) and to improve soil organic matter and physical characteristics owing to surface retention of residues (Govaerts et al., 2007). Therefore, growing of pigeonpea on a raised bed compared to a flat bed could be a better option to ensuring optimum plant stand and increased crop productivity (Ramakrishna et al., 2000). The transition to the permanent raised bed planting technique may, however, exert a large influence on the nutrient availability and recycling of nutrients, particularly N and P, as the plant residue and stubbles left behind on the beds may lead to temporary nutrient deficiency due to microbial immobilization (Yadvinder-Singh et al., 2005). Hence there is a need to compare the two planting techniques, i.e., flat bed (FB) and permanent raised bed (PRB) to understand their influence on various soil and crop parameters.

Information currently available on PRB planting technique with reference to pigeonpea–wheat cropping system in India is scanty. The present investigation was, therefore, undertaken to (i) evaluate yield, economics and energy use in pigeonpea–wheat system under PRB vis-à-vis conventionally tilled FB system, (ii) optimize N and P requirement of wheat following pigeonpea crop under PRB, and (iii) compare PRB and FB with respect to changes in important soil fertility parameters, and the water and nutrient use efficiencies in wheat.

Section snippets

The site

A field experiment was conducted for 3 consecutive years, i.e., 2001–02, 2002–03 and 2003–04 on a Typic Ustochrept at the research farm of the Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram, Meerut (29°4′N, 77°46′E, 237 m asl), India. The Meerut district, located in western Uttar Pradesh, represents irrigated, mechanized and input-intensive area of the Upper Gangetic Plain (UGP) zone of the IGPR of India. The decennial monthly minimum temperatures fluctuate from 6.7 to 21.7 °C and

Pigeonpea

The rainfall distribution during the study period particularly in monsoon seasons varied widely (Fig. 1), and the flat bed (FB) planted pigeonpea suffered a high plant mortality caused due to intermittent water logging during the monsoon season. The total plant mortality over the initial plant population under FB varied from 26–36% during the study, which was reduced to 4–7% under the permanent raised bed (PRB) treatment. In general, higher the rainfall during the monsoon greater was the extent

Discussion

In this study, we attempted to evaluate the effect of two planting techniques (FB and PRB) on monsoon pigeonpea grown with uniform fertilizer input, and on subsequent winter wheat grown with a variable N and P supply in a 3-year field experiment. Compared with pigeonpea grown on PRB, that on the FB suffered greater plant mortality (26–36% in different years, Fig. 1) induced by temporary water stagnation during the monsoon season. On the other hand, pigeonpea on PRB not only had higher plant

Conclusions

The findings of our study revealed the superiority of PRB over FB in all respects including net economic returns. Greater irrigation water use efficiency and relatively smaller specific energy requirement under PRB make the practice further attractive, particularly in view of dwindling ground and surface water resources due to over-exploitation in the high productivity transects of IGP. With removal of the major constraints of FB planted pigeonpea in IGP, i.e., high plant mortality due to

Acknowledgement

We acknowledge the encouragement and facilities provided for the field and lab studies by Project Director, Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuarm, Meerut.

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