Abstract
The relationship between soil structure and the ability of soil to stabilize soil organic matter (SOM) is a key element in soil C dynamics that has either been overlooked or treated in a cursory fashion when developing SOM models. The purpose of this paper is to review current knowledge of SOM dynamics within the framework of a newly proposed soil C saturation concept. Initially, we distinguish SOM that is protected against decomposition by various mechanisms from that which is not protected from decomposition. Methods of quantification and characteristics of three SOM pools defined as protected are discussed. Soil organic matter can be: (1) physically stabilized, or protected from decomposition, through microaggregation, or (2) intimate association with silt and clay particles, and (3) can be biochemically stabilized through the formation of recalcitrant SOM compounds. In addition to behavior of each SOM pool, we discuss implications of changes in land management on processes by which SOM compounds undergo protection and release. The characteristics and responses to changes in land use or land management are described for the light fraction (LF) and particulate organic matter (POM). We defined the LF and POM not occluded within microaggregates (53–250 μm sized aggregates as unprotected. Our conclusions are illustrated in a new conceptual SOM model that differs from most SOM models in that the model state variables are measurable SOM pools. We suggest that physicochemical characteristics inherent to soils define the maximum protective capacity of these pools, which limits increases in SOM (i.e. C sequestration) with increased organic residue inputs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvarez R, Alvarez C R, Daniel P E, Richter V and Blotta L 1998 Nitrogen distribution in soil density fractions and its relation to nitrogen mineralisation under different tillage systems. Aust. J. Soil Res. 36, 247–256.
Amelung W, Zech W, Zhang X, Follett R F, Tiessen H, Knox E and Flach K W 1998 Carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur pools in particle-size fractions as influenced by climate. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62, 172–181.
Amelung W, Zhang X, Flach K W and Zech W 1999 Lignin in particle-size fractions of native grassland soils as influenced by climate. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63, 1222–1228.
Anderson D W, Saggar S, Bettany J R and Stewart J W B 1981 Particle size fractions and their use in studies of soil organic matter: I. The nature and distribution of forms of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45, 767–772.
Anderson D W and Paul E A 1984 Organo-mineral complexes and their study by radiocarbon dating. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48, 298–301.
Angers D A and Mehuys G R 1990 Barley and alfalfa cropping effects on carbohydrate contents of a clay soil and its size fractions. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22, 285–288.
Angers D A and Ndayegamiye A 1991 Effects of manure application on carbon, nitrogen, and carbohydrate contents of a silt loam and its particle-size fractions. Biol. Fert. Soils 11, 79–82.
Angers D A, Ndayegamiye A and Cote D 1993 Tillage-induced differences in organic matter of particle-size fractions and microbial biomass. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57, 512–516.
Angers D A, Recous S and Aita C 1997 Fate of C and nitrogen in water-stable aggregates during decomposition of 13C15N-labbelled wheat straw in situ. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 48, 295–300.
Arah J 2000 Modelling SOM cycling in rice-based production systems In Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics in Flooded Soil. Eds. G J D Kirk and D C Olk. pp 163–179. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.
Balesdent J 1996 The significance of organic separates to carbon dynamics and its modeling in some cultivated soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47, 485–493.
Balesdent J, Besnard E, Arrouays D and Chenu C 1998 The dynamics of carbon in particle-size fractions of soil in a forest-cultivation sequence. Plant Soil 201, 49–57.
Balesdent J, Chenu C and Balabane M 2000 Relationship of soil organic matter dynamics to physical protection and tillage. Soil Tillage Res. 53, 215–230.
Barrios E, Buresh R J and Sprent J I 1996 Nitrogen mineralization in density fractions of soil organic matter from maize and legume cropping systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28, 185–193.
Barrios E, Kwesiga F, Buresh R J and Sprent J I 1997 Light fraction soil organic matter and available nitrogen following trees and maize. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 826–831.
Barrow N J 1969 The accumulation of soil organic matter under pasture and its effect on soil properties. Aust. J. Exper. Agric. Animal Husb. 9, 437–445.
Bartlett J R and Doner H E 1988 Decomposition of lysine and leucine in soil aggregates: adsorption and compartimentalization. Soil Biol. Biochem. 20, 755–759.
Bates J A R 1960 Studies on a Nigerian forest soil I. The distribution of organic matter in the profile and in various soil fractions. J. Soil Sci. 11, 246–256.
Beare M H, Cabrera M L, Hendrix P F and Coleman D C 1994 Aggregate-protected and unprotected organic matter pools in conventional-and no-tillage soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 787–795.
Besnard E, Chenu C, Balesdent J, Puget P and Arrouays D 1996 Fate of particulate organic matter in soil aggregates during cultivation. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47, 495–503.
Biederbeck V O, Janzen H H, Campbell C A and Zentner R P 1994 Labile soil organic matter as influenced by cropping practices in an arid environment. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26, 1647–1656.
Bonde T, Christensen B T and Cerri C C 1992 Dynamics of soil organic matter as reflected by natural 13C abundance in particle size fractions of forested and cultivated oxisols. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24, 275–277.
Boone R D 1994 Light fraction soil organic matter: origin and contribution to net nitrogen mineralization. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26, 1459–1468.
Bosatta E and Agren G I 1996 Theoretical analyses of carbon and nutrient dynamics in soil profiles. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28, 1523–1531.
Bossuyt H, Six J and Hendrix P F 2002 Aggregate protected carbon in no-tillage and conventional tillage agroecosystems using 14C-labeled plant residue. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., Submitted.
Bremer E, Janzen H H and Johnston A M 1994 Sensitivity of total, light and mineralizable organic matter to management practices in a Lethbridge soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 74, 131–138.
Cadisch G and Giller K E 1997 Driven by Nature: Plant litter quality and decomposition. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 409 p.
Cambardella C A and Elliott E T 1992 Particulate soil organic matter across a grassland cultivation sequence. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56, 777–783.
Cambardella C A and Elliott E T 1993 Carbon and nitrogen distribution in aggregates from cultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57, 1071–1076.
Campbell C A, Bowren K E, Schnitzer M, Zentner R P and Townley-Smith L 1991 Effect of crop rotations and fertilization on soil biochemical properties in a thick Black Chernozem. Can. J. Soil Sci. 71, 377–387.
Catroux G and Schnitzer M 1987 Chemical, spectroscopic and biological characteristics of the organic matter in particle size fractions separated from an Aquoll. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51, 1200–1207.
Chantigny M H, Angers D A, Prévost D, Vézina L-P and Chalifour F-P 1997 Soil aggregation and fungal and bacterial biomass under annual and perennial cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 262–267.
Cheshire M V and Mundie C M 1981 The distribution of labeled sugars in soil particle size fractions as a means of distinguishing plant and microbial carbohydrate residues. J. Soil Sci. 32, 605–618.
Chichester F W 1969 Nitrogen in soil organo-mineral sedimentation fractions. Soil Sci. 107, 356–363.
Chotte J L, Ladd J N and Amato M 1998 Sites of microbial assimilation and turnover of soluble and particulate 14C-labelled substrates decomposing in a clay soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 30, 205–218.
Christensen B T 1985 Carbon and nitrogen in particle size fractions isolated from Danish arable soils by ultrasonic dispersion and gravity-sedimentation. Acta Agric. Scand. 35, 175–187.
Christensen B T 1986 Straw incorporation and soil organic matter in macro-aggregates and particle size separates. J. Soil Sci. 37, 125–135.
Christensen B T 1987 Decomposability of organic matter in particle size fractions from field soils with straw incorporation. Soil Biol. Biochem. 19, 429–435.
Christensen B T 1996 Carbon in primary and secondary organomineral complexes. In Structure and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils. Eds.M R Carter and B A Stewart. pp 97–165. CRC Press, Inc, Boca Raton, FL.
Collins H P, Elliott E T, Paustian K, Bundy L G, Dick WA, Huggins D R, Smucker A J M and Paul E A 2000 Soil carbon pools and fluxes in long-term corn belt agroecosystems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32, 157–168.
Curtin D and Wen G 1999 Organic matter fractions contributing to soil nitrogen mineralization potential. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63, 410–415.
Dalal R C and Henry R J 1988 Cultivation effects on carbohydrate contents of soil and soil fractions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 52, 1361–1365.
Dalal R C and Mayer R J 1986a Long term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation and cereal cropping in southern Queensland. III distribution and kinetics of soil organic carbon in particle-size fractions. Aust. J. Soil Res. 24, 293–300.
Dalal R C and Mayer R J 1986b Long term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation and cereal cropping in southern Queensland. IV Loss of organic carbon from different density functions. Aust. J. Soil Res. 24, 301–309.
Denef K, Six J, Bossuyt H, Frey S D, Elliott E T, Merckx R and Paustian K 2001 Influence of wet-dry cycles on the interrelationship between aggregate, particulate organic matter, andmicrobial community dynamics. Soil Biol. Biochem. 33, 1599–1611.
Dixon J B 1989 Kaolin and Serpentine group minerals. In Minerals in Soil Environments. Ed. J B Dixon and S B Weed. pp 467–525. SSSA Book Series No. 1. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Donigian A S, Patwardhan A S, Chinnaswamy R V and Barnwell T O 1997 Modeling soil carbon and agricultural practices in the U.S.: An update of preliminary study results. In Soil Processes and the Carbon Cycle. Eds. R Lal, J M Kimble, R F Follett and B A Stewart. pp 499–518. CRC Press, Inc, Boca Raton, FL.
Edwards A P and Bremner J M 1967 Microaggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 18, 64–73.
Elliott E T 1986 Aggregate structure and carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in native and cultivated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50, 627–633.
Elliott E T and Coleman D C 1988 Let the soil work for us. Ecological Bulletins 39, 23–32.
Elliott E T, Anderson R V, Coleman D C and Cole C V 1980 Habitable pore space and microbial trophic interactions. Oikos 35, 327–335.
Elliott E T, Paustian K and Frey S D 1996 Modeling the measurable or measuring the modelable: A hierarchical approach to isolating meaningful soil organic matter fractionations. In Evaluation of Soil Organic Matter Models. Eds. D S Powlson, P Smith and J U Smith. pp 161–179. NATO ASI Series, Springer-Verlag.
Elustondo J., Angers D A, Laverdiere M R and N'Dayegamiye A 1990 Itude comparative de l'agrégation et de la matiére organique associée aux fractions granulométriques de sept soils sous culture de maïs ou en prairie. Can. J. Soil Sci. 70, 395–402.
Feller C and Beare M H 1997 Physical control of soil organic matter dynamics in the tropics. Geoderma 79, 69–116.
Feller C, Albrecht A and Tessier C 1997 Aggregation and organic matter storage in kaolinitic and smectitic tropical soils. In Structure and Organic Matter Storage in Agricultural Soils. Eds. M R Carter and B A Stewart. pp 309–359. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Follett R F, Paul E A, Leavitt S W, Halvorson A D, Lyon D and Peterson G A 1997 Carbon isotope ratios of Great Plains soils and in wheat-fallow systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 1068–1077.
Franzluebbers A J and Arshad M A 1996 Water-stable aggregation and organic matter in four soils under conventional and zero tillage. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76, 387–393.
Franzluebbers A J and Arshad M A 1997 Particulate organic carbon content and potential mineralization as affected by tillage and texture. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 1382–1386.
Gale W J, Cambardella C A and Bailey T B 2000 Root-derived carbon and the formation and stabilization of aggregates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64, 201–207.
Golchin A, Oades J M, Skjemstad J O and Clarke P 1994 Study of free and occluded particulate organic matter in soils by solid state 13C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Aust. J. Soil. Res. 32, 285–309.
Golchin A, Clarke P, Oades J, Mand Skjemstad J O 1995 The effects of cultivation on the composition of organic matter and structural stability of soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. 33, 975–993.
Greenland D J 1965 Interactions between clays and organic compounds in soils. Part I. Mechanisms of interaction between clays and defined organic compounds. Soils and Fertilizers 28, 415–532.
Greenland D J and Ford G W 1964 Separation of partially humified organic materials from soils by ultrasonic vibration. Transactions of the eight International Congress of Soil Science 3, 137–148.
Gregorich E G, Kachanoski R G and Voroney R P 1989 Carbon mineralization in soil size fractions after various amounts of aggregate disruption. J. Soil Sci. 40, 649–659.
Guggenberger G, Christensen B T and Zech W 1994 Land-use effects on the composition of organic matter in particle-size separates of soil: I. Lignin and carbohydrate signature. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 45, 449–458.
Guggenberger G, Zech W, Haumaier L and Christensen B T 1995 Land-use effects on the composition of organic matter in particlesize separates of soil: II. CPMAS and solution 13C NMR analysis. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 46, 147–158.
Guggenberger G, Frey S D, Six J, Paustian K and Elliott E T 1999 Bacterial and fungal cell-wall residues in conventional and notillage agroecosystems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63, 1188–1198.
Hassink J 1995 Density fractions of soil macroorganic matter and microbial biomass as predictors of C and N mineralization. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27, 1099–1108.
Hassink J 1997 The capacity of soils to preserve organic C and N by their association with clay and silt particles. Plant Soil 191, 77–87.
Hassink J and Whitmore A P 1997 A model of the physical protection of organic matter in soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 131–139.
Hattori T 1988 Soil aggregates as microhabitats of microorganisms. Rep. Inst. Agr. Res. Tohoku Univ. 37, 23–36.
Ismail I, Blevins R L and Frye W W 1994 Long-term no-tillage effects on soil properties and continuous corn yields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 193–198.
Janzen H H 1987 Soil organic matter characteristics after long-term cropping to various spring wheat rotations. Can. J. Soil Sci. 67, 845–856.
Janzen H H, Campbell C A, Brandt S A, Lafond G P and Townley-Smith L 1992 Light fraction organic matter in soils from longterm crop rotations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56, 1799–1806.
Jastrow J D 1996 Soil aggregate formation and the accrual of particulate and mineral-associated organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28, 656–676.
Jastrow J D, Boutton T W and Miller R M 1996 Carbon dynamics of aggregate-associated organic matter estimated by carbon-13 natural abundance. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60, 801–807.
Jenkinson D S and Rayner J H 1977 The turnover of soil organic matter in some of the Rothamsted classical experiments. Soil Sci. 123, 298–305.
Jocteur Monrozier L, Ladd J N, Fitzpatrick R W, Foster R C and Raupach M 1991 Components and microbial biomass content of size fractions in soils of contrasting aggregation. Geoderma 49, 37–62.
Kemper W D and Koch E J 1966 Aggregate stability of soils from Western United States and Canada. pp 1–52. Colorado Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 1355.
Killham K, Amato Mand Ladd J N 1993 Effect of substrate location in soil and soil pore-water regime on carbon turnover. Soil Biol. Biochem. 25, 57–62.
Kononova M M 1966 Soil OrganicMatter, Its Nature, Its role in Soil Formation and in Soil Fertility. Pergammon Press, Oxford, 252 p.
Ladd J N, Amato M and Oades J M 1985 Decomposition of plant material in Australian soils. III. Residual organic and microbial biomass C and N from isotope-labeled legume material and soil organic matter, decomposing under field conditions. Aust. J. Soil Res. 23, 603–611.
Ladd J N, Jocteur-Monrozier L and Amato M 1992 Carbon turnover and nitrogen transformations in an alfisol and vertisol amended with [U-14C] glucose and [15N] ammonium sulfate. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24, 359–371.
Larson W E, Clapp C E, Pierre W H, Morachan Y B 1972 Effects of increasing amounts of organic residues on continuous corn: II. Organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. Agronomy J. 64, 204–208.
Leinweber P and Reuter G 1992 The influence of different fertilization practices on concentrations of organic carbon ant total nitrogen in particle-size fractions during 34 years of a soil formation experiment in loamy marl. Biol. Fert. Soils 13, 119–124.
Leavitt S W, Follett R F and Paul E A 1996 Estimation of slow-and fast-cycling soil organic carbon pools from 6N HCl hydrolysis. Radiocarbon 38, 231–239.
Lowe L E and Hinds A A 1983 The mineralization of nitrogen and sulphur from particle size separates of gleysolic soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 63, 761–766.
Magid J, Gorissen A and Giller K E 1996 In search of the elusive 'active' fraction of soil organic matter: three size-density fractionation methods for tracing the fate of homogeneously 14C labeled plant materials. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28, 89–99.
McGill W B 1996 Review and classification of ten soil organic matter models. In Evaluation of Soil Organic Matter Models. Eds. D S Powlson, P Smith and Smith. pp. 111–132. NATO ANSI Series, Springer Verlag
McKeague J A 1971 Organic matter in particle-size fractions and specific gravity fractions of some Ah horizons. Can. J. Soil Sci. 51, 499–505.
Meijboom F W, Hassink J and Van Noordwijk M 1995 Density fractionation of soil macroorganic matter using silica suspensions. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27, 1109–1111.
Merckx R, Den Hartog A and van Veen J A 1985 Turnover of rootderived material and related microbial biomass formation in soils of different texture. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17, 565–569.
Metherell A K 1992 Simulation of soil or oranic matter dynamics and nutrient cycling in agroecosystems. Ph.D. Diss. Colorado State University, Fort Collins.
Molloy L F and Speir T W 1977 Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grassland. 12. Constituents of the soil light fraction. New Zealand J. Soil Sci. 20, 167–177.
Monreal C M and Kodama H 1997 Influence of aggregate architecture and minerals on living habitats and soil organic matter. Can. J. Soil Sci. 77, 367–377.
Motavalli P P, Palm C A, Parton W J, Elliott E T and Frey S D 1994 Comparison of laboratory and modeling simulation methods for estimating carbon pools in tropical forest soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26, 935–944.
Murayama S, Cheshire M V, Mundie C M, Sparling G P and Shepherd H 1979 Comparison of the contribution to soil organic matter fractions, particularly carbohydrates, made by plant residues and microbial products. J. Sci. Food Agric. 30, 1025–1034.
Nacro H B, Benest D and Abbadie L 1996 Distribution of microbial activities and organic matter according to particle size in a humid savanna soil (Lamato, Cote D'Ivoire). Soil Biol. Biochem. 28, 1687–1697.
Oades J M, Vassallo A M, Waters A G and Wilson M A 1987 Characterization of organic matter in particle size and density fractions from Red-Brown Earth by solid-state 13C NMR Aust. J. Soil Res. 25, 71–82.
Oades J M and Waters A G 1991 Aggregate hierarchy in soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. 29, 815–828.
Parton W J, Schimel D S, Cole C V and Ojima D S 1987 Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51, 1173–1179.
Parton W J, Ojima D S, Cole C V and Schimel D S 1994 A general model for soil organic matter dynamics: Sensitivity to litter chemistry, texture and management. In Quantitative Modeling of Soil Forming Processes. pp 147–167. SSSA Special Publication 39, Madison, WI.
Paul E A, Horwath W R, Harris D, Follett R, Leavitt S W, Kimball B A and Pregitzer K 1995 Establishing the pool sizes and fluxes in CO2 emissions from soil organic matter turnover. In Soils and Global Change. Eds. R Lal, J Kimble, E Levine and B A Stewart. pp 297–304. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Paul E A, Follett R F, Leavitt S W, Halvorson A, Peterson G A and Lyon D J 1997a Radiocarbon dating for determination of soil organic matter pool sizes and dynamics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61, 1058–1067.
Paul E A, Paustian K, Elliott E T and Cole C V 1997b Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 414 p.
Paul E A, Harris D, Collins H P, Schulthess U, Robertson G P 1999 Evolution of CO2 and soil carbon dynamics in biologically managed, row-crop agroecosystems. Appl. Soil Ecol. 11, 53–65.
Paul E A, Collins H P and Leavitt S W 2001 Dynamics of resistant soil carbon of Midwestern agricultural soils measured by naturally occurring 14C abundance Geoderma 104, 239–256.
Paustian K, Parton W J and Persson J 1992 Modeling soil organic matter in organic-amended and N-fertilized long-term plots. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56, 476–488.
Paustian K 1994 Modelling soil biology and biogeochemical processes for sustainable agriculture. In Management of Soil Biota in Sustainable Farming Systems. Eds. C Paknjurst, B M Doube and V V S R Gupta. pp 182–196. CISRO Publ., Melbourne.
Paustian K, Collins H P and Paul E A 1997 Management controls on soil carbon. In Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroecosystems. Eds. E A Paul, K Paustian, E T Elliott and C V Cole. pp 15–49. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Paustian K, Six J, Elliott E T and Hunt H W 2000 Management options for reducing CO2 emissions from agricultural soils. Biogeochemistry 48, 147–163.
Powlson D S, Smith P and Smith J U 1996 Evaluation of Soil Organic Matter Models. NATO ANSI Series, Springer Verlag. 429 p.
Priesack E and Kisser-Priesack G M 1993 Modelling diffusion and microbial uptake of 13C-glucose in soil aggregates. Geoderma 56, 561–573.
Puget P, Chenu C and Balesdent J 1995 Total and young organic matter distributions in aggregates of silty cultivated soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 46, 449–459.
Puget P, Besnard E and Chenu C 1996 Une méthode de fractionnement des matières organiques particulaires des sols en fonction de leur localisation dans les agrégats. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, t. 322, sJrie II a, pp. 965–972
Puget P, Angers D A and Chenu C 1999 Nature of carbohydrates associated with water-stable aggregates of two cultivated soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31, 55–63.
Pulleman M M and Marinissen J C Y 2001 Carbon mineralization as affected by natural aggregation in pasture versus arable soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. submitted.
Quiroga A R, Buschiazzo D E and Peinemann N 1996 Soil organic matter particle size fractions in soils of the semiarid argentinian pampas. Soil Sci. 161, 104–108.
Recous S, Aita C and Mary B 1999 In situ changes in gross N transformations in bare soil after addition of straw. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31, 119–133.
Ridley A M, Helyar K R and Slattery W J 1990 Soil acidification under subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneaum L.) pastures in North-Eastern Victoria. Aust. J. Exper. Agric. 30, 195–201.
Russell J S 1960 Soil fertility changes in the long term experimental plots at Kybybolite, South Australia. I. Changes in pH, total nitrogen, organic carbon and bulk density. Aust. J. Agr. Res. 11, 902–926.
Schnitzer M and Khan S U 1972 Humic Substances in the Environment. Marcel Dekker, New York. 379 p.
Schofield R K and Samson H R 1954 Flocculation of kaolinite due to the attraction of oppositely charged crystal faces. Faraday Discussions 18, 135–145.
Schulten H R, Leinweber P and Sorge C 1993 Composition of organic matter in particle size fractions of an agricultural soil. J. Soil Sci. 44, 677–691.
Sexstone A J, Revsbech N P, Parkin T B and Tiedje J M 1985 Direct measurement of oxygen profiles and denitrification rates in soil aggregates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 645–651.
Shang C and Tiessen H 1997 Organic matter lability in a tropical oxisol: Evidence from shifting cultivation, chemical oxidation, particle size, density, and magnetic fractionations. Soil Sci. 162, 795–807.
Sierra J 1996 Nitrogen mineralisation and its error of estimation under field conditions related to the light-fraction soil organic matter. Aust. J. Soil Res. 34, 755–767.
Six J, Elliott E T, Paustian K and Doran J W 1998 Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation in cultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62, 1367–1377.
Six J, Elliott E T and Paustian K 1999 Aggregate and soil organic matter dynamics under conventional and no-tillage systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63, 1350–1358.
Six J, Paustian K, Elliott E T and Combrink C 2000a Soil structure and soil organic matter: I. Distribution of aggregate size classes and aggregate associated carbon. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64, 681–689.
Six J, Elliott E T and Paustian K 2000b Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: A mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32, 2099–2103.
Six J, Guggenberger G, Paustian K, Haumaier L, Elliott E T and Zech W 2001 Sources and composition of soil organic matter fractions between and within aggregates. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 52, 607–618.
Skjemstad J O, Dalal R C and Barron P F 1986 Spectroscopic investigation of cultivation effects on organic matter of Vertisols. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50, 354–359.
Skjemstad J O, Le Feuvre R P and Prebble R E 1990 Turnover of soil organic matter under pasture as determined by 13C natural abundance. Aust. J. Soil Res. 28, 267–276.
Skjemstad J O, Clarke P, Taylor J A, Oades J M and McClure S G 1996 The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil. Aust. J. Soil Res. 34, 251–271.
Solberg E D, Nyborg M, Izaurralde R C, Malhi S S, Janzen H H and Molina-Ayala M 1997 Carbon Storage in soils under continuous cereal grain cropping: N fertilizer and straw. In Management of Carbon Sequestration in Soil. Eds. R. Lal, J M Kimble, R F Follett and B A Stewart. pp 235–254. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Sollins P, Spycher G and Glassman C A 1984 Net nitrogen mineralization from light-and heavy-fraction forest soil organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 31–37.
Sollins P, Hofmann P and Caldwell B A 1996 Stabilization and destabilization of soil organic matter: mechanisms and controls. Geoderma 74, 65–105.
Solomon D, Lehmann J and Zech W 2000 Land use effects on soil organic matter properties of chromic Luvisols in semi-arid northern Tanzania: carbon, nitrogen, lignin and carbohydrates. Agr. Ecosys. Environ. 78, 203–213.
Solomon D, Lehmann J and Zech W 2001 Land use effects on amino sugar signature of chromic Luvisols in the semi-arid part of northern Tanzania. Biol. Fert. Soils 33, 33–40.
Sorensen L H 1972 Stabilization of newly formed amino acid metabolites in soil by clay minerals. Soil Sci. 114, 5–11.
Stemmer M, Von Lutznow M, Kandeler E, Pichlmayer F and Gerzabek M H 1999 The effect of maize straw placement on mineralization of C and N in soil particle size fractions. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 50, 73–85.
Stevenson F J 1994 Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition, Reactions. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 496 p.
Tiessen H and Stewart J W B 1983 Particle-size fractions and their use in studies of soil organic matter: II Cultivation effects on organic matter composition in size fractions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 47, 509–514.
Tisdall J M and Oades J M 1982 Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 33, 141–163.
Torn M S, Trumbore S E, Chadwick O A, Vitousek P M and Hendricks D M 1997 Mineral control of soil organic carbon storage and turnover. Nature 389, 170–173.
Trumbore S E 1993 Comparison of carbon dynamics in tropical and temperate soils using radiocarbon measurements. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 7, 275–290.
Trumbore S E, Chadwick O A and Amundson R 1996 Rapid exchange between soil carbon and atmospheric carbon dioxide driven by temperature change. Science 272, 393–396.
Turchenek L W and Oades J M 1979 Fractionation of organomineral complexes by sedimentation and density techniques. Geoderma 21, 311–343.
Vanlauwe B, Sanginga N and Merckx R 1998 Soil organic matter dynamics after addition of nitrogen-15-labeled Leucena and Dactyladenia residues. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62, 461–466.
Vanlauwe B, Aman S, Aihou K, Tossah B K, Adebiyi V, Sanginga N, Lyasse O, Diels J and Merckx R 1999 Alley cropping in the moist savanna of West-Africa III. Soil organic matter fractionation and soil productivity. Agroforestry Systems 42, 245–264.
van Veen J A and Kuikman P J 1990 Soil structural aspects of decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms. Biogeochemistry 11, 213–233.
Young J L and Spycher G 1979 Water-dispersible soil organicmineral particles: I. Carbon and nitrogen distribution. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 43, 324–328.
Zhang H, Thompson M L and Sandor H A 1988 Compositional differences in organic matter among cultivated and uncultivated Argiudolls and Hapludalfs derived from loess. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 52, 516–222.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Six, J., Conant, R.T., Paul, E.A. et al. Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter: Implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant and Soil 241, 155–176 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789