Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-995ml Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T01:05:11.841Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri): A Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Sarah M. Ward*
Affiliation:
Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523
Theodore M. Webster
Affiliation:
USDA-ARS, Tifton, GA 31793
Larry E. Steckel
Affiliation:
Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Jackson, TN 38301
*
Corresponding author's E-mail: sarah.ward@colostate.edu
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In little over 20 yr, Palmer amaranth has risen from relative obscurity to its current status as one of the most widespread, troublesome, and economically damaging agronomic weeds in the southeastern U.S. Numerous factors have enabled Palmer amaranth to become such a dominant and difficult-to-control weed, including its rapid growth rate, high fecundity, genetic diversity, ability to tolerate adverse conditions, and its facility for evolving herbicide resistance. It is both a serious threat to several U.S. cropping systems and a fascinating model weed. In this paper, we review the growing body of literature on Palmer amaranth to summarize the current state of knowledge on the biology, agricultural impacts, and management of this weed, and we suggest future directions for research.

En poco más de 20 años, Amaranthus palmeri ha salido de una relativa oscuridad a su estado actual como una de las malezas agrícolas más ampliamente distribuida, más problemática y económicamente dañina en el sureste de los Estados Unidos. Numerosos factores le han permitido a A. palmeri convertirse en una maleza tan dominante y difícil de controlar, incluyendo su rápida tasa de crecimiento, alta fecundidad, diversidad genética, habilidad para tolerar condiciones adversas, y su facilidad para evolucionar resistencia a herbicidas. Es una amenaza para varios sistemas de cultivos en los Estados Unidos, pero también es una maleza modelo fascinante. En este artículo, revisamos la cantidad creciente de literatura sobre A. palmeri para resumir el estado actual de conocimiento sobre la biología, impactos agrícolas, y manejo de esta maleza, y sugerimos futuras direcciones para su investigación.

Type
Review
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits noncommercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited.
Copyright
Copyright © Weed Science Society of America

References

Literature Cited

Anonymous. USDA Agricultural Marketing Service – Cotton Program. 2012. Cotton varieties planted 2011 crop. http://www.ams.usda.gov/mnreports/cnavar.pdf. Accessed: March 25, 2012.Google Scholar
Aulakh, J. S., Price, A. J., Enloe, S. F., and Patterson, M. G. 2011. Inversion tillage, high residue covers and different herbicide regimes for Palmer amaranth management in Liberty Link cotton. Weed Technol. 25 :542547.Google Scholar
Bararpour, M. T., Oliver, L. R., and Bell, C. G. 2011. Comparisons of HPPD inhibitors for weed control programs in corn. Page 16 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Beckie, H. J. 2006. Herbicide resistant weeds: management tactics and practices. Weed Technol. 20 :793814.Google Scholar
Beckie, H. J. 2011. Herbicide-resistant weed management: focus on glyphosate. Pest Manag. Sci. 67 :10371048.Google Scholar
Bensch, C. N., Horak, M. J., and Peterson, D. 2003. Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean. Weed Sci. 51 :3743.Google Scholar
Bond, J. A. 2012. Challenges associated with clean turnrows and ditchbanks. Page 5 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conferences. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Bond, J. A. and Eubank, T. W. 2011. Comparison of Ignite application programs in Liberty Link cotton. Page 14 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Bond, J. A., Oliver, L. R., and Stephenson, D. O. IV. 2006. Response of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) accessions to glyphosate, fomesafen, and pyrithiobac. Weed Technol. 20 :885892.Google Scholar
Bond, J. A., Smith, K. L., Stephenson, D. O. IV, Norsworthy, J. K., Steckel, L. E., Manning, J. K., and McDuffie, J. B. 2010. Managing glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth with residual herbicides in Midsouth cotton. Page 1652 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Bradow, J. M. and Connick, W. J. 1987. Allelochemicals from Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. J. Chem. Ecol. 13 :185202.Google Scholar
Buchanan, G. A. 1974. Weed survey- southern states. South. Weed Sci. Soc. Res. Rep. 27 :215249.Google Scholar
Bullingdon, J. A., Smith, K. L., Doherty, R. C., and Meier, J. R. 2011. Program approaches using Mon 63410 for controlling Palmer amaranth. Page 1557 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Burgos, N. R., Kuk, Y. I., and Talbert, R. E. 2001. Amaranthus palmeri resistance and differential tolerance of Amaranthus palmeri and Amaranthus hybridus to ALS-inhibitor herbicides. Pest Manag. Sci. 57 :449457.Google Scholar
Burgos, N. R. and Talbert, R. E. 2000. Differential allelochemicals from Secale cereale in seedling bioassays. Weed Sci. 48 :302310.Google Scholar
Burke, I. C., Schroeder, M., Thomas, W. E., and Wilcut, J. W. 2007. Palmer amaranth interference and seed production in peanut. Weed Technol. 21 :367371.Google Scholar
Burnside, O. C., Wilson, R. G., Weisberg, S., and Hubbard, K. G. 1996. Seed longevity of 41 weed species buried 17 years in eastern and western Nebraska. Weed Sci. 44 :7486.Google Scholar
Castle, L. A., Wu, G., and McElroy, D. 2006. Agricultural input traits: past, present and future. Current Opin. Biotechnol. 17 :105112.Google Scholar
Causarano, H. J., Franzluebbers, A. J., Reeves, D. W., and Shaw, J. N. 2006. Soil organic carbon sequestration in cotton production systems of the southeastern United States: a review. J. Environ. Qual. 35 :13741383.Google Scholar
Chafin, J. E., Culpepper, A. S., and Braxton, L. B. 2010. Palmer amaranth, benghal dayflower, carpetweed, pitted morningglory, and broadleaf signalgrass response to glufosinate applied alone or mixed with 2,4-D or dicamba. Page 1670 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Chandler, J. M. 1984. Cotton production practices in the USA and the world. Section D. Weeds. Pages 330365 in Kohel, R. J. and Lewis, C. F., eds. Cotton. Madison, WI : Amercican Society of Agronomy.Google Scholar
Connick, W. J., Bradow, J. M., Legendre, M. G., Vail, S. L., and Menges, R. M. 1987. Identification of volatile allelochemicals from Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. J. Chem. Ecol. 13 :463472.Google Scholar
Costea, M., Weaver, S. E., and Tardif, F. J. 2004. The biology of Canadian weeds. 130. Amaranthus retroflexus L., A. powellii S. Watson and A. hybridus L. Canad. J. Plant Sci. 84 :631668.Google Scholar
Costea, M., Weaver, S. E., and Tardif, F. J. 2005. The biology of invasive alien plants in Canada. 3. Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer var. rudis (Sauer) Costea & Tardif. Canad. J. Plant Sci. 85 :507522.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S. 2006. Glyphosate-induced weed shifts. Weed Technol. 20 :277281.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S. 2009. Herbicide resistance impacting cotton production. Page 93 in Proceedings of the 2009 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., Grey, T. L., Vencill, W. K., Kichler, J. M., Webster, T. M., Brown, S. M., York, A. C., Davis, J. W., and Hanna, W. W. 2006. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Sci. 54 :620626.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., Kichler, J., Sosnoskie, L., York, A., Sammons, D., and Nichols, B. 2010b. Integrating cover crop residue and moldboard plowing into glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth management programs. Page 1650 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., Moore, T., Etheredge, R., and Briggs, W. 2012. Cotton injury as influenced by herbicides, irrigation, seedling vigor, seedling depth and environmental stresses. Page 1515 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference 2012. Cordova, TN; National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., Richburg, J. S., York, A. C., Steckel, L. E., and Braxton, L. B. 2011. Managing glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth using 2,4-D systems in DHT cotton in GA, NC, and TN. Page 1543 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., Webster, T. M., Sosnoskie, L. M., and York, A. C. 2010a. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in the US. Pages 195212 in Nandula, V. K., ed. Glyphosate Resistance: Evolution, Mechanisms, and Management. Hoboken, NJ : J. Wiley.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., York, A. C., MacRae, A. W., Kichler, J., Whitaker, J., and Davis, A. L. 2007. Managing glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in conventional and strip-till Roundup Ready cotton. Pages 12301231 in Proceedings of the 2007 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Culpepper, A. S., York, A. C., Roberts, P., and Whitaker, J. R. 2009. Weed control and crop response to glufosinate applied to ‘PHY 485 WRF' cotton. Weed Technol. 23 :356362.Google Scholar
Davis, R. F. and Webster, T. M. 2005. Relative host status of selected weeds and crops for Meloidogyne incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis . J. Cotton Sci. 9 :4146.Google Scholar
DeVlaming, V. and Vernon, W. P. 1968. Dispersal of aquatic organisms: viability of seeds recovered from the droppings of captive killdeer and mallard ducks. Am. J. Bot. 55 :2026.Google Scholar
DeVore, J. D., Norsworthy, J. K., Griffith, G. M., Still, J., and Johnson, D. B. 2010. Effect of deep tillage and rye on Palmer amaranth seed burial and emergence in cotton. Page 1674 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
DeVore, J. D., Norsworthy, J. K., Johnson, D. B., Wilson, M. J., and Griffith, G. M. 2011. Influence of deep tillage and a rye cover crop on Palmer amaranth emergence in cotton. Page 1554 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Dillon, T. W., Scott, R. C., Dickson, J. W., and Pearrow, N. D. 2011. Glyphoste-resistant pigweed control in soybean. Page 232 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Doherty, R. C., Smith, K. L., Bullington, J. A., and Meier, J. R. 2011. Palmer amaranth and barnyardgrass control as influenced by weed size, glufosinate rate, volume, and spray tip. Page 1556 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Dowler, C. C. 1995. Weed survey - southern states - broadleaf crops subsection. Pages 290305 in 1995 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, J. 1981. Leaf absorptances of Mohave and Sonoran Desert plants. Oecologia 49 :366370.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, J. 1983. Ecophysiology of Amaranthus palmeri, a Sonoran Desert summer annual. Oecologia 57 :107112.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, J. 1985. Annuals and perennials of warm deserts. Pages 162180 in Chabot, B. F. and Mooney, H. A., eds. Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities. New York : Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, J. R., Cerling, T. E., and Helliker, B. R. 1997. C4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2, and climate. Oecologia 112 :285299.Google Scholar
Ehleringer, J. and Forseth, I. 1980. Solar tracking by plants. Science 210 :10941098.Google Scholar
Fast, B. J., Murdock, S. W., Farris, R. L., Willis, J. B., and Murray, D. S. 2009. Critical timing of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) removal in second-generation glyphosate-resistant cotton. J. Cotton Sci. 13 :3236.Google Scholar
Forseth, I. N., Ehleringer, J. R., Werk, K. S., and Cook, C. S. 1984. Field water relations of Sonoran Desert annuals. Ecology 65 :14361444.Google Scholar
Franssen, A. S., Skinner, D. Z., Al-Khatib, K., Horak, M. J., and Kulakow, P. A. 2001. Interspecific hybridization and gene flow of ALS resistance in Amaranthus species. Weed Sci. 49 :598606.Google Scholar
Gaeddert, J. W., Peterson, D. E., and Horak, M. J. 1997. Control and cross-resistance of an acetolactate synthase inhibitor-resistant palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) biotype. Weed Technol. 11 :132137.Google Scholar
Gaines, T. A., Shaner, D. L., Ward, S. M., Leach, J. E., and Westra, P. 2011. Mechanism of resistance of evolved glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri). J. Agricult. Sci. Food Chem. 59 :58865889.Google Scholar
Gaines, T. A., Ward, S. M., Bekun, B., Preston, C., Leach, J. E., and Westra, P. 2012. Interspecific hybridization transfers a previously unknown glyphosate resistance mechanism in Amaranthus species. Evol. Applic. 5 :2938.Google Scholar
Gaines, T. A., Zhang, W., Wang, D., Bukun, B., Chisholm, S. T., Shaner, D. L., Nissen, S. J., Patzoldt, W. L., Tranel, P. J., Culpepper, A. S., Grey, T. L., Webster, T. M., Vencill, W. K., Sammons, R. D., Jiang, J. M., Preston, C., Leach, J. E., and Westra, P. 2010. Gene amplification confers glyphosate resistance in Amaranthus palmeri . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 :10291034.Google Scholar
Givens, W. A., Shaw, D. R., Kruger, G. R., Johnson, W. G., Weller, S. C., Young, B. G., Wilson, R. G., Owen, M. D. K., and Jordan, D. 2009. Survey of tillage trends following the adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops. Weed Technol. 23 :150155.Google Scholar
Gossett, B. J., Murdock, E. C., and Toler, J. E. 1992. Resistance of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) to the dinitroaniline herbicides. Weed Technol. 6 :587591.Google Scholar
Grant, W. F. 1959a. Cytogenetic studies in Amaranthus III. Chromosome numbers and phylogenetic aspects. Canad. J. Genet. Cytol. 1 :313328.Google Scholar
Grant, W. F. 1959b. Cytogenetic studies in Amaranthus I. Cytological aspects of sex determination in dioecious species. Canad. J. Bot. 37 :413417.Google Scholar
Greizerstein, E. J. and Poggio, L. 1992. Estudios citogenéticos de seis híbridos interespecíficos de Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae). Darwiniana 31 :159165.Google Scholar
Guo, P. G. and Al-Khatib, K. 2003. Temperature effects on germination and growth of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis). Weed Sci. 51 :869875.Google Scholar
Heap, I. M. 2012. International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. (http://www.weedscience.org/in.asp), Accessed 29 May 2012.Google Scholar
Holshouser, D. L. and Ahmed, A. 2011. Control of glyphosate resistant palmer amaranth in Liberty Link soybean. Page 253 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Horak, M. J. and Loughin, T. M. 2000. Growth analysis of four Amaranthus species. Weed Sci. 48 :347355.Google Scholar
Horak, M. J. and Peterson, D. E. 1995. Biotypes of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and common waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis) are resistant to imazethapyr and thifensulfuron. Weed Technol. 9 :192195.Google Scholar
Jha, P. and Norsworthy, J. K. 2009. Soybean canopy and tillage effects on emergence of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) from a natural seed bank. Weed Sci. 57 :644651.Google Scholar
Jha, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Bridges, W., and Riley, M. B. 2008a. Influence of glyphosate timing and row width on Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and pusley (Richardia spp.) demographics in glyphosate-resistant soybean. Weed Sci. 56 :408415.Google Scholar
Jha, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Riley, M. B., Bielenberg, D. G., and Bridges, W. 2008b. Acclimation of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) to shading. Weed Sci. 56 :729734.Google Scholar
Jha, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Riley, M. B., and Bridges, W. 2010a. Annual changes in temperature and light requirements for germination of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) seeds retrieved from soil. Weed Sci. 58 :426432.Google Scholar
Jha, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Riley, M. B., and Bridges, W. 2010b. Shade and plant location effects on germination and hormone content of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) seed. Weed Sci. 58 :1621.Google Scholar
Jones, C. A., Chandler, J. M., Morrison, J. E., Seseman, S. A., and Tingle, C. H. 1998. Glufosinate combinations and row spacing for weed control in glufosinate- resistant corn. Weed Technol. 15 :141147.Google Scholar
Jordan, D. L., York, A. C., Hinton, J., Seagroves, R., Eure, P. M., and Hoffner, A. 2011. Pigweed management in soybean with preemergence and postemergence herbicide programs. Page 246 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Keeley, P. E., Carter, C. H., and Thullen, R. J. 1987. Influence of planting date on growth of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri). Weed Sci. 35 :199204.Google Scholar
Kichler, J. and Culpepper, A. S. 2012. How tillage and application timing of reflex affects Palmer amaranth control and cotton injury. Page 1534 in 2012 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Kichler, J., Culpepper, A. S., and Chafin, J. 2010. Glyphosate resistant Palmer amaranth and cotton response to residual at-plant herbicides applied on the soil surface or pre-plant incorporated. Page 1654 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Kichler, J., Culpepper, A. S., Sosnoskie, L., and York, A. C. 2011. Tillage influences Palmer amaranth control by Reflex. Page 1553 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, B. A. 1995. Interspecific relationships within the genus Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae. Ph.D. dissertation. College Station, TX : Texas A & M University. 87 p.Google Scholar
Klingaman, T. E. and Oliver, L. R. 1994. Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) interference in soybeans (Glycine max). Weed Sci. 42 :523527.Google Scholar
Knezevic, S. Z., Evans, S. P., Blankenship, E. E., Van Acker, R. C., and Lindquist, J. L. 2002. Critical period for weed control: the concept and data analysis. Weed Sci. 50 :773786.Google Scholar
MacRae, A. W., Culpepper, A. S., and Kichler, J. M. 2007. Managing glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in LibertyLink cotton. Page 1232 in Proceedings of the 2007 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
MacRae, A. W., Culpepper, A. S., Webster, T. M., Sosnoskie, L. M., and Kichler, J. M. 2008. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth competition with Roundup Ready cotton. Page 1696 in Proceedings of the 2008 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Main, C. L. 2011. University of Tennessee cotton variety testing data. http://www.utcrops.com/cotton/VarietyTestingData/PB1742%20Cotton%20Variety%20Results%202011.pdf. Accessed: March 8, 2012.Google Scholar
Marshall, M. W. 2012. Herbicide programs for Palmer amaranth and pitted morningglory control in dicamba-tolerant cotton. Page 1513 in 2012 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Massinga, R. A., Currie, R. S., Horak, M. J., and Boyer, J. 2001. Interference of Palmer amaranth in corn. Weed Sci. 49 :202208.Google Scholar
Menges, R. M. 1987a. Weed seed population dynamics during six years of weed management systems in crop rotations on irrigated soil. Weed Sci. 35 :328332.Google Scholar
Menges, R. M. 1987b. Allelopathic effects of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and other plant residues in soil. Weed Sci. 35 :339347.Google Scholar
Merchant, R., Culpepper, A. S., York, A. C., and Steckel, L. E. 2011. Weed response to glufosinate applied alone or mixed with 2,4D or dicamba in Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Page 1558 in 2011 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Meyers, S. L., Jennings, K. M., Schultheis, J. R., and Monks, D. W. 2010. Interference of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in sweetpotato. Weed Sci. 58 :199203.Google Scholar
Moerman, D. E. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany. Portland, OR : Timber Press.Google Scholar
Mohler, C. L. and Teasdale, J. R. 1993. Response of weed emergence to rate of Vicia villosa Roth and Secale cereale L. residue. Weed Res. 33 :487499.Google Scholar
Moore, J. W., Murray, D. S., and Westerman, R. B. 2004. Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) effects on the harvest and yield of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Weed Technol. 18 :2329.Google Scholar
Morgan, G. D., Baumann, P. A., and Chandler, J. M. 2001. Competitive impact of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) development and yield. Weed Technol. 15 :408412.Google Scholar
Mosyakin, S. L. and Robertson, K. R. 1996. New infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae). Ann. Bot. Fennici 33 :272281.Google Scholar
Nandula, V. K., Reddy, K. N., Kroger, C. H., Poston, D. H., Rimando, A. M., Duke, S. O., Bond, J. A., and Ribeiro, D. N. 2012. Multiple resistance to glyphosate and pyrithiobac in Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) from Mississippi and response to flumiclorac. Weed Sci. 60 :179188.Google Scholar
Neve, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Smith, K. L., and Zelaya, I. A. 2011a. Modeling glyphosate resistance management strategies for Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in cotton. Weed Technol. 25 :335343.Google Scholar
Neve, P., Norsworthy, J. K., Smith, K. L., and Zelaya, I. A. 2011b. Modelling evolution and management of glyphosate resistance in Amaranthus palmeri . Weed Res. 51 :99112.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K. 2008. Effect of tillage intensity and herbicide programs on changes in weed species density and composition in the southeastern coastal plains of the United States. Crop Prot. 27 :151160.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K. 2011a. Influence of weed size on Palmer amaranth and pitted morningglory control with combinations of glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D. Page 1545 in 2011 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K. 2011b. Rethinking weed control: resistance management and emphasis on the soil seedbank. Page 1537 in 2011 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K. 2012. Affect of irrigation type and timing on herbicide performance. Page 1517 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Griffith, G. M., Scott, R. C., Smith, K. L., and Oliver, L. R. 2008. Confirmation and control of glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in Arkansas. Weed Technol. 22 :108113.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Smith, K. L., Scott, R. C., Steckel, L. E., Bond, J. A., Eubank, T. W., and Stephenson, D. 2012a. Midsouth weed management survey with emphasis on Palmer amaranth. Page 1544 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Smith, K. L., Steckel, L. E., and Koger, C. H. 2009. Weed seed contamination of cotton gin trash. Weed Technol. 23 :574580.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Still, J., Johnson, D. B., Bangarawa, S. K., and Smith, K. L. 2010. Influence of rainfall on activation of residual cotton herbicides for controlling Palmer amaranth. Page 1653 in Proceedings of the 2010 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Ward, S. M., Shaw, D. R., Llewellyn, R., Nichols, R. L., Webster, T. M., Bradley, K. W., Frisvold, G., Powles, S. B., Burgos, N. R., Witt, W., and Barrett, M. 2012b. Best management practices to combat evolution of herbicide resistant weeds in herbicide resistant cotton and soybean. http://wssaabstracts.com/public/9/abstract-313.html. Accessed June 26, 2012.Google Scholar
Norsworthy, J. K., Ward, S. M., Shaw, D. R., Llewellyn, R., Nichols, R. L., Webster, T. M., Bradley, K. W., Frisvold, G., Powles, S. B., Burgos, N. R., Witt, W., and Barrett, M. 2012c. Reducing the risks of herbicide resistance: best management practices and recommendations. Weed Sci. 60 (Special issue 1):3162.Google Scholar
Pal, M., Pandey, R. M., and Kashoo, T. N. 1982. Evolution and improvement of cultivated amaranths. IX. Cytogenetic relationship between the two basic chromosome numbers. J. Hered. 73 :353356.Google Scholar
Place, G., Bowman, D., Burton, M., and Rutty, T. 2008. Root penetration through a high bulk density soil layer: differential response of a crop and weed species. Plant Soil 307 :179190.Google Scholar
Potter, T. L., Truman, C. C., Bosch, D. D., and Bednarz, C. 2004. Fluometuron and pendimethalin runoff from strip and conventionally tilled cotton in the southern Atlantic Coastal Plain. J. Environ. Qual. 33 :21222131.Google Scholar
Powles, S. B. 2010. Gene amplification delivers glyphosate-resistant weed evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 :955956.Google Scholar
Price, A. J., Balkcom, K. S., Culpepper, S. A., Kelton, J. A., Nichols, R. L., and Schomberg, H. 2011. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth: a threat to conservation tillage. J. Soil Water Conserv. 66 :265275.Google Scholar
Proctor, V. W. 1968. Long-distance dispersal of seeds by retention in digestive tract of birds. Science 160 :321322.Google Scholar
Prostko, E. P. 2011. Developing a herbicide resistant weed management plan. Page 1538 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Prostko, E. P. 2012. Managing herbicide-resistant Palmer amaranth (pigweed) in field corn, grain sorghum, peanut and soybean. http://www.gaweed.com/resistance-2012-tables.pdf. Accessed March 23, 2012.Google Scholar
Radosevich, S. R. and Holt, J. S. 1984. Weed Ecology: Implications for Vegetation Management. New York : John Wiley and Sons. 265 p.Google Scholar
Rayburn, A. L., McCloskey, R., Tatum, T. C., Bollero, G. A., Jeschke, M. R., and Tranel, P. J. 2005. Genome size analysis of weedy Amaranthus species. Crop Sci. 45 :25572562.Google Scholar
Reed, J. D., Keeling, J. W., and Dotray, P. A. 2011. Control of Palmer amaranth in Glytol™ + LibertyLink® cotton. Page 1563 in Proceedings of the 2011 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Riar, D. S., Norsworthy, J. K., and Griffith, G. M. 2011. Herbicide programs for enhanced glyphosate-resistant and glufosinate-resistant cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Technol. 25 :526534.Google Scholar
Riar, D. S., Norsworthy, J. K., and Johnson, D. B. 2012. Evaluation of layby programs for Palmer amaranth control in cotton. Page 1501 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Ribeiro, D. N., Dayan, F. E., Pan, Z., Duke, S. O., Shaw, D. R., Nandula, V. K., and Baldwin, B. S. 2011. EPSPS gene amplification inheritance in glyphosate- resistant Amaranthus palmeri from Mississippi. Page 137 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Ribeiro, D. N., Pan, Z., Dayan, F. E., Duke, S. O., Nadula, V. K., Shaw, D. R., and Baldwin, B. S. 2012. Apomixis involvement in inheritance of glyphosate resistance in Amaranthus palmeri from Mississippi. Abstracts of the Weed Science Society of America 2012 Annual Meeting. http://wssaabstracts.com/public/9/abstract-438.html. Accessed June 12 2012.Google Scholar
Rowland, M. W., Murray, D. S., and Verhalen, L. M. 1999. Full-season Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) interference with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Sci. 47 :305309.Google Scholar
Saari, L. L., Cotterman, J. C., and Thill, D. C. 1994. Resistance to acetolactate synthase inhibiting herbicide. Pages 83139 in Powles, S. B. and Holtum, J. A. M., eds. Herbicide Resistance in Plants: Biology and Biochemistry. Boca Raton, FL : Lewis Publishers.Google Scholar
Sauer, J. D. 1950. The grain amaranths: a survey of their history and classification. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 37 :561632.Google Scholar
Sauer, J. D. 1955. Revision of the dioecious amaranths. Madrono 13 :546.Google Scholar
Sauer, J. D. 1957. Recent migration and evolution of the dioecious amaranths. Evolution 11 :1131.Google Scholar
Scott, R. C., Dickson, J. W., and Pearrow, N. D. 2011. Glyphosate-resistant pigweed control in soybean. Page 232 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Scott, R. C., Steckel, L. E., Smith, K. L., Mueller, S., Oliver, L. R., and Norsworthy, J. K. 2007. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in Tennessee and Arkansas. Page 226 in 2007 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Sellers, B. A., Smeda, R. J., Johnson, W. G., Kendig, J. A., and Ellersieck, M. R. 2003. Comparative growth of six Amaranthus species in Missouri. Weed Sci. 51 :329333.Google Scholar
Shaner, D. L., Anderson, P. C., and Stidham, M. A. 1984. Imidiazolinones: potent inhibitors of acetohydroxy acid synthase. Plant Physiol. 76 :545546.Google Scholar
Shell, G.S.G. and Lang, A. R. G. 1976. Movements of sunflower leaves over a 24-h period. Agricult. Meteorol. 16 :161170.Google Scholar
Smith, D. T., Baker, R. V., and Steele, G. L. 2000. Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) impacts on yield, harvesting, and ginning in dryland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Technol. 14 :122126.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. and Culpepper, A. S. 2012. Changes in cotton weed management practices following the development of glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. Page 1520 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L., Culpepper, A. S., Grey, T. L., and Webster, T. M. 2012b. Allelopathy: Hope or hype? Page 1497 in 2012 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. M., Culpepper, A. S., Grey, T. L., and Webster, T. M. 2012c. Compensatory growth in Palmer amaranth: effects on weed seed production and crop yield. Page 99 in 2012 Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science. Las Cruces, NM : Western Society of Weed Science.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. M., Culpepper, A. S., and Webster, T. M. 2011a. Palmer amaranth seed mortality in response to burial depth and time. Pages 15501552 in 2011 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN. National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. M., Kichler, J. M., Wallace, R. D., and Culpepper, A. S. 2011b. Multiple resistance in Palmer amaranth to glyphosate and pyrithiobac confirmed in Georgia. Weed Sci. 59 :321325.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. M., Webster, T. M., and Culpepper, A. S. 2007. Palmer amaranth pollen viability. http://commodities.caes.uga.edu/fieldcrops/cotton/rerpubs/2007/p43.pdf. Accessed 17 April 2012.Google Scholar
Sosnoskie, L. M., Webster, T. M., MacRae, A. W., Grey, T. L., and Culpepper, A. S. 2012a. Pollen-mediated dispersal of glyphosate-resistance in Palmer amaranth under field conditions. Weed Sci. 60 :366373.Google Scholar
Sprague, C. L., Stoller, E. W., Wax, L. M., and Horak, M. J. 1997. Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) and common waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis) resistance to selected ALS-inhibiting herbicides. Weed Sci. 45 :192197.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E. 2007. The dioecious Amaranthus spp.: here to stay. Weed Technol. 21 :567570.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E. 2012a. The changing arsenal of weed control. Page 7 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E. 2012b. The double edged sword of pre emergence herbicides. Page 1519 in Proceedings of the 2012 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E., Eubank, T. W., Weirich, J., Scott, B., and Montgomery, R. 2012b. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth control in dicamba tolerant soybean system in the midsouth. Page 65 in 2012 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E., Main, C. L., Ellis, A. T., and Mueller, T. C. 2008. Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in Tennessee has low level glyphosate resistance. Weed Technol. 22 :119123.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E., Prostko, E. P., Scott, B., Eubank, T. W., and Rhodes, N. 2012a. University extension role and responsibilities in protecting the technology. Page 258 in 2012 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E., Sprague, C. L., Stoller, E. W., and Wax, L. M. 2004. Temperature effects on germination of nine Amaranthus species. Weed Sci. 52 :217221.Google Scholar
Steckel, L. E., Stephenson, D., Bond, J., Stewart, S. D., and Barnett, K. A. 2012c. Tolerance of WideStrike cotton to over-the-top glufosinate tankmixtures. Cotton Sci. 16 :8895.Google Scholar
Steinau, A. N., Skinner, D. Z., and Steinau, M. 2003. Mechanism of extreme genetic recombination in weedy Amaranthus hyrbids. Weed Sci. 51 :696701.Google Scholar
Steinmaus, S. J., Prather, T. S., and Holt, J. S. 2000. Estimation of base temperatures for nine weed species. J. Exp. Bot. 51 :275286.Google Scholar
Stephenson, D. O. and Bond, J. A. 2012. Evaluation of thiencarbazone-methyl- and soxaflutole-based herbicide programs in corn. Weed Technol. 26 :3742.Google Scholar
Stephenson, D. O., Bond, J. A., Siebert, J., and Walton, L. 2011. Control of various weeds with 2,4-D alone or co-applied with glufosinate or glyphosate. Page 1546 in 2011 Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Tan, S., Evans, R., and Singh, B. 2006. Herbicidal inhibitors of amino acid biosynthesis and herbicide-tolerant crops. Amino Acids. 30 :195204.Google Scholar
Teasdale, J. R. and Mohler, C. L. 2000. The quantitative relationship between weed emergence and the physical properties of mulches. Weed Sci. 48 :385392.Google Scholar
Tedford, E. C. and Fortnum, B. A. 1988. Weed hosts of Meloidogyne arenaria and Meloidogyne incognita common in tobacco fields in South Carolina. Ann. Appl. Nematol. 2 :102105.Google Scholar
Thompson, C. R., Peterson, D., and Lally, N. G. 2012. Characterization of HPPD resistant Palmer amaranth. http://wssaabstracts.com/public/9/abstract-413.html. Accessed July 14, 2012.Google Scholar
Timper, P., Davis, R. F., Webster, T. M., Brenneman, T. B., Meyer, S. L. F., Zasada, I. A., Cai, G., and Rice, C. P. 2011. Response of root-knot nematodes and Palmer amaranth to tillage and rye green manure. Agron. J. 103 :813821.Google Scholar
Tranel, P. J., Jiang, W., Patzoldt, W. L., and Wright, T. R. 2004. Intraspecific variability of the acetolactate synthase gene. Weed Sci. 52 :236241.Google Scholar
Tranel, P. J. and Wright, T. R. 2002. Resistance of weeds to ALS-inhibiting herbicides: what have we learned? Weed Sci. 50 :700712.Google Scholar
Triplett, G. B. Jr. and Dick, W. A. 2008. No-tillage crop production: a revolution in agriculture. Agron. J. 100 :S-153165.Google Scholar
Trucco, F., Jeschke, M. R., Rayburn, A. L., and Tranel, P. J. 2005. Promiscuity in weedy amaranths: high frequency of female tall waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) x smooth pigweed (A. hybridus) hybridization under field conditions. Weed Sci. 53 :4654.Google Scholar
Trucco, F., Zheng, D., Woodyard, A. J., Walter, J. R., Tatum, T. C., Rayburn, A. L., and Tranel, P. J. 2007. Nonhybrid progeny from crosses of dioecious Amaranths: implications for gene-flow research. Weed Sci. 55 :119122.Google Scholar
Turner, B. L. 1994. Chromosome numbers and their phyletic interpretation. Pages 2743 in Behnke, H. D. and Mabry, T. J., eds. Caryophyllales evolution and systematics. New York : Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Vencill, W. K., Prostko, E. P., and Webster, T. E. 2002. Is Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) resistant to ALS and dinitroaniline herbicides? Page 189 in 2002 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Walkington, D. L. 1960. A survey of the hay fever plants and important atmospheric allergens in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area. J. Allergy 31 :2541.Google Scholar
Wang, J. L., Klessig, D. F., and Berry, J. O. 1992. Regulation of C4 gene expression in developing amaranth leaves. Plant Cell 4 :173184.Google Scholar
Wassom, J. J. and Tranel, P. J. 2005. Amplified fragment length polymorphism-based genetic relationships among weedy Amaranthus species. J. Hered. 96 :410416.Google Scholar
Webster, T. M. and Coble, H. D. 1997. Changes in the weed species composition of the southern United States: 1974 to 1995. Weed Technol. 11 :308317.Google Scholar
Webster, T. M. and Nichols, R. L. 2012. Changes in the prevalence of weed species in the major agronomic crops of the Southern United States: 1994/1995 to 2008/2009. Weed Sci. 60 :145157.Google Scholar
Webster, T. M., Scully, B. T., and Culpepper, A. S. 2011. Rye-legume winter cover crop mixtures and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus Palmeri). Page 59 in 2011 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Webster, T. M. and Sosnoskie, L. M. 2010. The loss of glyphosate efficacy: a changing weed spectrum in Georgia cotton. Weed Sci. 58 :7379.Google Scholar
Wetzel, D. K., Horak, M. J., Skinner, D. Z., and Kulakow, P. A. 1999. Transferal of herbicide resistance traits from Amaranthus palmeri to Amaranthus rudis . Weed Sci. 47 :538543.Google Scholar
Whitaker, J. R., York, A. C., and Culpepper, A. S. 2008. Management systems for glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. Page 693 in Proceedings of the 2008 Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, TN : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Whitaker, J., York, A., Jordan, D., and Culpepper, A. S. 2011. Weed management with glyphosate- and glufosinate-based systems in PHY 485 WRF cotton. Weed Technol. 25 :183191.Google Scholar
Wiese, A. F. 1968. Rate of weed root elongation. Weed Sci. 16 :1113.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. J., Norsworthy, J. K., Johnson, D. B., and Starkey, C. E. 2011. Comparison of length of residual Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) control among herbicides. Page 1561 in Proceedings of the 2011Beltwide Cotton Conference. Cordova, NM : National Cotton Council of America.Google Scholar
Wise, A. M., Grey, T. L., Prostko, E. P., Vencill, W. K., and Webster, T. M. 2009. Establishing the geographical distribution and level of acetolactate synthase resistance of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) accessions in Georgia. Weed Technol. 23 :214220.Google Scholar
Wright, S. R., Coble, H. D., Raper, C. D. Jr., and Rufty, T. W. Jr. 1999a. Comparative responses of soybean (Glycine max), sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia), and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) to root zone and aerial temperatures. Weed Sci. 47 :167174.Google Scholar
Wright, S. R., Jennette, M. W., Coble, H. D., and Rufty, T. W. 1999b. Root morphology of young Glycine max, Senna obtusifolia, and Amaranthus palmeri . Weed Sci. 47 :706711.Google Scholar
York, A., Culpepper, S., Sosnoskie, L., and Bollman, S. 2012. Palmer amaranth management in dicamba/glufosinate tolerant cotton. Page 98 in 2012 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
York, A. C., Whitaker, J. R., Culpepper, A. S., and Main, C. L. 2007. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth in the southeastern United States. Page 225 in 2007 Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society. Las Cruces, NM : Southern Weed Science Society.Google Scholar
Zimdahl, R. L. 1980. Weed Crop Competition: A Review. Corvallis, OR : International Plant Protection Center. 196 p.Google Scholar